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Introduction
Constructivism is the theoretical approach of education that states, "individuals form or construct much of what they learn and understand" (Schunk, 000). This concept incorporates social interaction with environmental circumstances into learning experiences. There are many theorists which encompass the constructivist approach into learning techniques. However, the most influential theorists include psychologists, Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner. The ideology of constructivism can be identified by following these theorists' views and application into instructional curriculum.
Vygotsky and Bruner share common instructional techniques which aid in the learning process. They share the principle that learners play and active role in the learning process. Likewise, each possesses originality in maintaining individual styles of constructivism through their differences. Vygotsky addresses the importance of culture (language) on individual learning while Bruner stresses gradual implementation of information to enhance learning. These theorists have influenced modern psychology by including constructivist approaches to education.
Lev Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky, Soviet psychologist deemed social cognition to be the foundation for development and learning. The context in which Vygotsky wrote includes the sociocultural theory on development and learning. From Vygotsky's perspective, culture and social surroundings are the primary establishments in which learning occurs. It is through the combination of societal and individual elements which generates learning. He alleged that since people create culture (i.e. society, traditions, background, ethnicity, customs, etc…) individuals, especially children develop in the silhouette of this culture. Vygotsky's major influences include his theory on the zone of proximal development (ZPD), self-regulated learning and scaffolding. ZPD states that the quantity of knowledge in which an individual is capable of learning is directly related to the instructional circumstances presented to the learner. Self-regulated learning teaches individuals to initiate and manage their behaviors in order to accomplish learning objectives. Scaffolding is a process whereby the instructor adjusts to the need of the learner in order to maintain a successful learning environment. From Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, instructors are able to create, design and implement suitable lessons which incorporate social interaction and manipulation. Learners also benefit as well by having the ability to monitor and evaluate individual development and set their own goals.
Jerome Bruner
Jerome Bruner considered cognitive growth and representation of knowledge to be the foundation of development and learning. The context in which Bruner wrote includes the combination of developmental and constructionist psychology. From Bruner's perspective, individuals represent knowledge. Individuals utilize a variety of skills in the learning process through three modes of developmental sequence. Bruner's major influences include his theory on the representation of knowledge (as a series of developmental events) and spiral curriculum. Representation of knowledge includes the enactive, iconic, and symbolic skills in which individual's possess. Enactive ability involves the use of environmental manipulation or automatic motor responsiveness. Iconic ability involves image recognition. Symbolic ability is classified as the highest of the three skills whereby individuals understand abstract concepts and reasoning. Spiral curriculum is the concept of receiving information on identical topics at various levels of difficulty in order to integrate current and past knowledge. From Bruner's constructivist theory, instructors have been able to implement the concept of discovery learning into their curriculum. Discovery learning is a method of instruction through which learners interact with their own environment. Learners are able to advance their thinking skills by examining and altering surrounding objects, participating in group discussions, debates and controversies, and/or through experimentation.
Similarities Between Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner
Closer examinations of these psychologists show commonalities among their theories of learning and development. Both Vygotsky and Bruner share constructivist views in which individuals construct knowledge during active interaction with other people and their surroundings. Both theorists believe that learners play and active role in the learning process. It is through this interaction that learners increase their skills. Examples of such interaction utilized by both theorists include manipulation, social interaction and working together with other learners.
Another similar factor includes the technique of Vygotsky's instructional scaffolding and Bruner's spiral organization of curriculum. Both instructional techniques utilize the process of re-examining prior knowledge and implementing its content into current instruction. Instructional scaffolding also incorporates Bruner's theory of discovery learning. Both techniques can support learning through social interaction such as classroom discussions. Instructional scaffolding, spiral curriculum and discovery learning allow learners adequate time to develop their skills necessary to advance.
Differences Between Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner
They differ however in their foundational structures. Vygotsky greatly emphasized the importance of culture, especially language (or signs) as the primary instructor of individual thought. He believed language has the capability to order behavior. "Children bring a developmental history to the zone of proximal development; adults bring a support structure" (Bruning, 1). Once this interaction is engaged, cultural development occurs, thus modifying cognitive skills. In the same sense, an individual with a higher level of cultural experiences will inadvertently increase their learning skills.
Bruner believed that individuals of any age can be instructed in a significant manner. Learning occurs when individuals revisit prior knowledge in order to incorporate its content into the new information. Bruner "emphasized mental structures and organizational frameworks" to accomplish the task of recalling prior knowledge into current instruction (Bruning, 1). It is not through cultural experiences alone that enhances learning, but through effective instruction in which information is gradually presented to learners. They are introduced to a topic at a simple level to progress their learning skills. Once this level has been achieved, more difficult levels reflecting the same topic are introduced until learners have mastered the topic.
Conclusion
Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner have presented various instructional techniques which developed from theories of constructivism. Vygotsky introduced how knowledge is directly related to the instructional circumstances presented to the learner through his zone of proximal development. He also addresses the importance of culture (language) and social surroundings which affect learning processes. Bruner introduced how individuals at any age can be successful learners through gradual representation of knowledge. He also addresses the significance of prior knowledge and incorporating its content into new learning experiences.
Vygotsky and Bruner affected the way in which instruction is presented today. From Vygotsky's theories, educators can examine the effect of cultural interaction with learners' ability to maintain knowledge. Bruner's theories have pioneered into educational techniques which are popular amongst learning facilities today. Discovery learning has been accepted as a critical component of instruction since it incorporates both social interactions with the progression of learning. In conclusion, while Vygotsky and Bruner displayed similarities of principles of constructivism, they differed in their instructional techniques to fit the need of individual learning capacities.
References
Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., and Ronning, R. R. (1). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction
(rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Constructivist Theory. (n.d.) Retrieved July 5, 00, from the World Wide Web http//tip.psychology.org/bruner.html
Jonassen, D. H., & Land, S. M. (000). Theoretical Foundations of Learning Environments.
Mahwah, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Payne, C. (00). A Consideration of Learning Theory in Relation to a Philosophy of Education.
Retrieved July 5, 00, from the World Wide Web http//www.mhc.ab.ca/users/cpayne/portfolio/eder681 _files/CPayner68_1.htm
Schunk, D. H. (000). Learning Theories An Educational Perspective (rd ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Smith, M.K. (00). Jerome S. Bruner and the Process of Education. Retrieved July 5, 00
from The Encyclopedia of Informal Education at http//www.infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm.
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