Critical Reflection and Autonomous Learning

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Critical Reflection and Autonomous Learning

Autonomous learning involves the ability to regulate one's actions through critical reflection on one's motives.

(Benson and Voller, 17 85)

As this quote suggests, autonomy is possible when critical reflection plays a leading role in our motivation to learn. The purpose of this assignment is to discuss the areas of critical reflection and autonomous learning within the field of education. In doing so the importance of these areas in education will be discussed as well as how these areas might be applied in meeting the Basic Principles of teaching Legal Studies. Finally, the integration and application of these principles in actual teaching practice will also be a focus of discussion.

Critical Reflection

Critical reflection is a process of ‘conscious monitoring and evaluating of what we know and the strategies we use to think and to know' (Silvers, 001). It is ‘not concerned with the how or the how-to of action but with the why, the reasons for and consequences of what we do' (Mezirow, 180). Through critical reflection it is possible to analyse reasoning and attitudes in order to make corrections, challenge deeply held beliefs, and make the transition of changing perceptions (Silvers, 001).

In order to be critically reflective there is a need to be open-minded about different issues understanding that there are alternative views of which are all questionable. There is a need to be responsible in the search for truth on a range of issues, and wholehearted so that fears and uncertainties can be overcome so to make meaningful changes and to critically evaluate ourselves, others, schools, and society (Yost, et al. 000).

Critical reflection holds importance in education because "to educate" is ‘to teach in a way that includes an account of why you do as you do' (Yost et al. 000). Critical reflection is a process that allows not only teachers to evaluate and understand the rationale behind their teaching, but also helps students to explore deeply held ideas and issues as an integral part of the larger learning cycle (Silvers, 001).

By demonstrating such critical reflection in classrooms, teachers can help students to ignite their thinking processes and assume more control over their own learning and behaviours (Silvers, 001). In addition, by implementing a learner-centred inquiry based approach, teachers and students can work collaboratively in order to construct knowledge by digging deeper for meaning, and to explore their own beliefs, attitudes and values, so that students ‘become engaged in, rather than learners of, their disciplines' (Silvers, 001). This in turn will promote in students, higher order thinking skills that will enable them to gain greater insight into their learning as they become more aware of their own biases and begin to address ways of dealing with them making changes if required (Silvers, 001).

Autonomous Learning

In the twentieth-century, autonomy has become a keyword in education. It has come to be associated with the ‘capacity of the individual to act as a responsible member of society', a ‘fully functioning person' (Benson and Voller, 17 4). Autonomous learning is about being independent, self-directed and taking responsibility and making decisions regarding the what, how and when of learning (Fazey and Fazey, 001). By teaching students to become autonomous learners they are being taught lifelong learning, thus illustrating its importance in preparing students for future endeavours.

An autonomous learner can be characterised by the following specific psychological components motivation, self-efficacy, attribution of success and locus of control, all of which are interrelated (Fisher, 1). The way in which the learner perceives their abilities or efficacy will determine their motivation to continue with that behaviour, and their beliefs and experiences of success will also contribute to any future initiations or inhibitions, all of which is regulated by the student's perceived control over their actions (Fisher, 1). An autonomous learner needs to have a self-perception as being highly competent in order to be prepared to risk short-term failure at a task they deem important. They need to be intrinsically motivated as this internally regulated motivation to learn is a logical aspect of independent self-directed learning congruent with autonomy. Finally, an autonomous learner will perceive themselves as being in control of their success and failure as they recognise that outcomes of activities are contingent upon behaviour (Fazey and Fazey, 001).

However, although motivation and metacognition is important in autonomy, it is not just about acting alone, it is also dependent on the surrounding environment (Fisher, 1). There must be an exposure to a learning environment that allows for the development and utilisation of autonomous qualities. This is said to be provided through educational policies that reflect the importance of students being self-directed and taking responsibility for their learning. It is also illustrated through educational practices within the classroom and at an individual level, whereby courses emphasise independence and responsibility and students are given opportunities to make decisions about their learning (Fisher, 1). By providing such a learning environment this allows for the development of the necessary skills in order to become autonomous and further giving reason to education.

From the above discussions of critical reflection and autonomous learning it is clear to see their relationship in producing students with higher order thinking skills enabling them to take on a deeper approach to learning. The next section of this essay will place these processes within the discipline of legal studies looking at its application within a classroom context.

Application of Critical Reflection and Autonomous Learning within Legal Studies

Legal Studies is a disciplinary area within secondary schools that specifically allows for the implementation and application of critical reflection and autonomous learning. Throughout the syllabus document, reference is continuously made with regards to the importance of developing the ‘life skills' of students through ‘critical analysis, examination and problem solving', in order to empower students to take responsibility of their learning and make decisions about certain issues (BOSSSS, 000).

The global aims of this subject area are to develop students into responsible members of society by teaching them ‘strategies and tactics that enable them to use rational and objective methods as well as qualitative and subjective judgments when examining social and legal issues' (BOSSSS, 000). The general objectives are based around providing students with the knowledge and understandings, teaching them higher-order thinking skills, communication skills, attitudes and values. All of which aim to have students using higher-order cognitive abilities to critically reflect and evaluate social attitudes and practices, work independently and develop them into ‘flexible, curious, and open-minded individuals who can make valuable contributions in a changing world' (BOSSSS, 000). By the end of the two year course students are expected to have developed ‘a critical respect for and positive attitude toward the legal system, law-making and law enforcement', by empathising with alternative views and examining and clarifying their own attitudes, ethics, values and opinions (BOSSSS, 000).

Throughout all topics of suggested study critical reflection and autonomous learning is emphasised, in particular the Independent Study and the Overview. By providing the students with the opportunity of making decisions about what content is studied in the Independent Study they are given the freedom to experiment and take risks with unfamiliar issues, thus developing their self-efficacy and attribution to success. In order to complete this section of study students are required to be self-motivated and by allowing for task ownership this helps students to be intrinsically motivated and develop an internal locus of control. All of these attributes lead to the development of autonomous learners.

The Overview section of study is aimed at bringing all areas learnt throughout the course into one wholehearted discussion. Students are provided with opportunities to criticise the legal system through the evaluation and critical reflection of the nature, scope and outcomes. This section is about expressing beliefs about topical issues, reflecting on the changes about attitudes and values since the beginning of the course. Overall, it's about looking at the ‘why, the reasons for and consequences of what we do' thus emphasising critical reflection (Mezirow, 180).

Application within a Classroom Context

The Senior Legal Studies Course allows for a variety of learning experiences in which the students can engage in, in order to develop the understandings for this discipline. From case study written analysis to mock trials, role-play simulations and guest speakers, students can be provided with opportunities to really look deep into the content of this subject. However it is not as simple as just providing such learning experiences, these experiences need to be delivered in such a way so as to allow for the development of critical reflection and autonomous learning.

Critical Reflection

In order to develop a critically reflective classroom teachers need to take on a different approach to teaching. They need to become more proactive and comfortable addressing assumptions and beliefs revealed by students (Silvers, 001). It is important to engage in discussions with students about their personal beliefs and biases, examining the extent to which their thinking is manipulated and positioned by political and economic biases in the media, asking questions that will raise students' awareness (Silvers, 001). One strategy that may help with critical reflection is through the video taping of lessons. The camera can be used as an,

impartial recorder of events and interactions providing the means to establish a recursive process of talking and interacting, viewing the video of the discussions and reflecting on the groups interactions objectively as viewers, and then personally as participants.

(Silvers, 001)

Another approach of implementing critical reflection within the classroom is through a philosophical inquiry approach, involving building on students' interests and reflecting on their questions, valuing talking and listening, providing reasons for opinions and encouraging respect (Abbott and Wilks, 1). Teachers need to provide an atmosphere where freedom of speech is encouraged without the fears of exclusion or ridicule. Throughout Legal Studies there are many issues that will raise debate within the classroom. Teachers need to have the skills to deal with such rigorous discussions and encourage students to explore these issues in order to help their experiences to become more meaningful, and empower them to continue with their discoveries of meaning (Abbott and Wilks, 1). Most importantly, for students to be able to engage in such deep discussions, they need to possess the skills required to do so. Therefore, it is important for teachers to first teach them the higher-order thinking skills such as, problem solving, decision making, and teaching them listening and discussion skills such as, reasoning, questioning and collaborating. From here then teachers can provide opportunities for ‘participation and negotiation, experiential and active learning, discussion and reflection' (Abbott and Wilks, 1 5).

Autonomous Learning

In order to develop students into autonomous learners it is important for teachers and students to understand the rationale behind the process. Teachers need to be able to shift their position in the classroom from being the dominant figure to one who facilitates student-centred discussions guiding them from dependence to independence (Benson and Voller, 17). The teacher is to ensure that their teaching practices reflect this assumption through the negotiation with learners where teachers act as a counsellor and a resource for students, sharing decision making, facilitating collaborative evaluation, being patient, and thus recognising and asserting their own autonomy (Benson and Voller, 17).

Students may feel anxious about being provided with such freedom. Therefore, it is important for the teacher to help students increase their self-efficacy, develop an internal locus of control, motivate students so that they develop a reason for learning that comes from within and help students to realise that success is a result of their actions (Fisher, 1).

An approach to learning, is a major characteristic of autonomous learning, and in order for students to take initiative in relation to their learning it is important to set clear learning goals that act as strong motivators. Therefore teachers need to encourage the setting of realistic goals for each learning task, providing positive feedback so to maintain self-efficacy and self-worth that is necessary to achieve these goals (Fisher, 1).

Another method of developing autonomy in learners is through authentic tasks. This can be achieved within Legal Studies by providing various case study examples, using newspaper articles and taking them to see court proceedings, all of which provide students with real-life experiences that will make the ‘transition from learning to use' (Benson and Voller, 17 6). By exposing students to authentic tasks this helps to develop student confidence in subject matter (self-efficacy), which in turn provides students with the motivation to deepen their understandings of the topic.

As Legal Studies is a ‘language subject' it is important to have students involved in reflective writing. Therefore teachers can include within their learning experiences, journal writing. In which students are required to think about their thoughts on areas of discussion, enabling them to develop a greater understanding and meaning (Fisher, 1). By encouraging students to see the writing task as something from which they can learn, something of value that they have ownership over, is an important aspect of learning autonomy (Fisher, 1).

Finally it is also crucial for Legal Studies teachers to provide students with learning environments that consist of constant challenges so to encourage deep approaches to learning. This allows the learner to ‘link together pieces of the task to construct a coherent, meaningful structure' (Fisher, 1 5). Which in turn will develop within the learner the attributes leading to autonomy.

Conclusion

This essay has aimed to discuss the importance of critical reflection and autonomous learning within education, as well as placing these processes within a Legal Studies context. In doing so it has been identified that both processes are valuable in teaching students the skills required for life long learning which in turn will prepare them for life after secondary education. The Basic Principles of teaching in Legal Studies reflects this aim and thus critical reflection and autonomous learning not only provides learning strategies that help to achieve this, it is embedded in the very nature of this subject.

References

Abbott, C. and Wilks, S. (1) ‘Using Critical Reflection with Adolescents philosophical inquiry in the classroom', IARTV, no. 60, May, pp. 1-8.

BOSSSS (000) Legal Studies Senior Syllabus 001.

Benson, P. and Voller, P. (17) Autonomy & Independence in Language Learning, Longman London.

Fazey, D., and Fazey, J. (001) ‘The Potential for Autonomy in Learning perceptions of competence, motivation and locus of control in .rst-year undergraduate students', Studies in Higher Education, vol.6, no..

Fisher, L. (1) Autonomous Self-Directed Learning, Queensland University of Technology Queensland.

Silver, P. (001) ‘Critical reflection in the elementary grades a new dimension in literature discussions', Language Arts, vol 78, July, pp. 556-56.

Yost, D., Sentner, S. and Forlenza-Bailey, A. (000) ‘An examination of the construct of critical reflection Implications for teacher education programming in the 1st century', Journal of Teacher Education, vol.51, Jan/Feb, pp. -4.

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VOICES WITH INTEGRITYA structural study on the portrayal of the female character in The Piano, The English Patient and Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon

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The Piano

The analysis is broken down into models, where is one looking on denotative / connotative levels, while another is concerned with the dialectical dynamic in the story, eliciting the opposition on a culturally moral point of view. A third model is a simplistic, although effective, progression line examining the development of Ada and her status.

The first division is concerned with four visual signs that recur throughout the story, and therefore should be paid special attention to.

Denotation Connotation

Piano Voice

Wings Innocence

Axe Domination

Forest Corruption

The Piano can be seen as an indexical sign for Ada's emotions. The way characters react to her way of playing suggests she communicates through the instrument. Aunt Morag makes the comment to Nessie (in the forest) that Ada's playing is as a mood that creeps under one's skin. Baines stops his advances on Ada when she breaks into a waltz by Chopin (at the fourth lesson). Her piano playing seems to be the only realm where she can be truly free, and speak her mind so to say, in an otherwise oppressive society, which in that sense makes the piano replace her muteness and becomes her voice.

The Angelic Wings figures for the first time during the preparation of the church play. Flora wears them more or less constantly after that. As a symbolic sign the wings connote innocence and goodness, however, the shadow cast by Reverend Septimus (during the preparations) with wings on and a fake axe implies there is a darker attachment to the wings as well. Since Flora starts wearing the wings she sides more and more with Stewart, and in the end betrays Ada twice (e.g. when washing the trunks, and delivering the piano key to Stewart instead). Literally the wings become dirty after Flora has been running around in the forest with them on. As stated below the forest stands for a corrupt culture and the innocence and goodness become tainted in contact with it. The last to be seen of the wings are when they are being washed clean in a river before the departure, suggesting all the jealousy, and hate Flora had towards her mother (e.g. when she is not allowed in to the cabin when Ada plays, and when Ada tells her to go home to practice and that she can't come with her to Baines') is now washed away, and she has found her way back to what is good her love for her mother.

The Axe is a symbolic sign for the patriarchal culture, which Stewart also is the embodiment of. It is only men who use an axe (even the fake one held by Reverend Septimus during the preparations), and its function is that of domination. With it nature is tamed, and Stewart, just as the male character in the church play, also uses the axe to subdue his woman (e.g. Stewart severs Ada's finger).

The Forest is often visually portrayed as dense with twisted trunks creating almost an impenetrable wall (00146, 010740, 0161 ), and in relation to Ada it becomes a visual symbol for the imprisonment she experience in the culture of which Stewart is a representative. The last shot of the forest support this idea as well; at the point of their departure the forest is still dense, although sunbeams are finding their way through the crowns of the trees (01455) creating an exit. The forest is a symbolic sign for a culture with corrupt values (e.g. treats women as objects, status through purchasing and possession of land).

The following chart divides the two male protagonists into an opposing binary system in order to elicit what they represent in the story.

Denotation Stewart Baines

Country England Scotland

House Muddy Green

Appearance Victorian New Zealandish

Ada Wife Lover

Connotation Stewart Baines

Country Supreme Subject

House Dead Alive

Appearance Rigid Adapted

Ada Possession Equal

Country

Judging by the accents of Stewart and Baines, it is fairly easy to come to the conclusion that Stewart is English and Baines is Scottish. The opposition becomes quite obvious if one looks at the past England and Scotland share between each other. It has seldom been a very amicable relationship between the two. It is commonly understood that England has been the supreme state over a subjected Scotland, which manifests in the relation between Stewart and Baines, also their characters seem defined by their origins as well. Stewart is overtly polite and sociable while Baines is stubborn and closed off at social occasions (e.g. tea in the missionary house, and the church before the play starts.) - stereotypical traits of English and Scottish people. The master - subject relationship between the two can be found in various situations throughout the story. Baines acts as an interpreter when Stewart does business with the Maoris, he helps Stewart to chop up wood, and he complies when Stewart tells him to leave the island. Stewart, on the other hand, is never to be seen helping Baines in any respect. By placing Stewart and Baines in two opposing countries a larger conflict transcends the relationship of the characters, and in a natural way pits them against each other. Stewart or Baines might not hate the other in the beginning of the story; however, due to history and culture they are divided and pre-set in an antagonistic stance.

House

The houses of Stewart and Baines represent the two different living conditions they have created and chosen to live in. As indexical visual signs the two houses and their surroundings also seem to reveal the nature of the two characters. When Stewarts house is shown for the first time its raining heavily, the soil is nothing but mud, and the house itself is meticulously built resembling a large wooden box. The land in the close vicinity of the house has been scorched and dead, burnt trees surround it, which ironically creates all the mud since there is no vegetation to bind it down anymore when it rains. It looks like nature has suffocated and nothing living exists anymore around Stewarts house. He has conquered the land and altered it according to his will. The connotations attached to the house are of a depressive and destructive sort, and to draw a parallel to folklore or Scandinavian Sagas a similar realm would have belonged to an evil and oppressive tyrant, as Knight Cato in Lindgrens Mio min Mio or the dragon in Beowulf . Baines house, in that case, is in stark contrast to that of Stewarts. The house might be somewhat smaller, although the nature around it flourishes. The whole house seems organic with leaf roof and cracks in the walls letting in sunbeams creating a serene and relaxed atmosphere. The calm black horse outside the house, looking at Ada and Flora on their first visit to Baines, further reinforces the notion that Baines house is peaceful. The difference between the houses of Baines and Stewart, on a connotative level, is that of heaven and hell.

Appearance

Both Baines and Stewart are being visually introduced simultaneously on the beach when they are to pick up Ada and Flora. On a denotative level Stewart is wearing a Victorian outfit consisting of a black top hat, black coat, white shirt, black bow tie, and vest and trousers in a green and dark green tartan with the pattern running horizontal and vertical. Stewart also has his hair neatly combed to the side and sideburns. Baines wears somewhat different clothes; a brown jacket with vanilla white sleeves, a large straw hat in the back of his neck, dark blue trousers, and a dark green and blue tartan vest with yellow stripes accentuating the tartan pattern that runs in diagonals. Baines hair is uncombed and wild. Baines is also clean-shaven, and has no sideburns, although he has a few Maori tattoos on his nose and on his forehead. The connotations are drawn to a cultural level where Stewart represents a rigid mono culture (i.e. the British Empire) that has no intention to learn or understand a different culture or way of thinking. Once again Baines is the opposite of Stewart. Baines is able to speak Maori and has also been accepted into the Maori culture (e.g. the Maori tattoos). His character has adapted to his environment and belongs to two different cultures that seemingly coexist without any conflict thus creating a new, mixed culture. In Stewarts case there is a clear conflict with the natives who, in sheer disrespect, both steal and break into his property (e.g. when he tries to pay them with buttons after they carried the piano, and when they break into his house to play the piano.)

Ada

Right from the beginning Stewart makes clear that Ada is not what he expected her to be (e.g. his comment on her height on the beach). The absence of a matrimonial ceremony suggests it is not a love marriage, and the photograph taken of the bride and groom in the rain seems just as constructed as their relationship. By showing no intention to collect the piano from the beach, and then swap it for land, without consulting her, he reveals his disregard of her opinions and feelings as an individual. The fact that Stewart, prior to the beach, never actually met Ada, creates the sense of her being an item among all the other boxes scattered out on the beach and Stewart acts as if he had bought them all via mail order. His possessive trait, as mentioned above regarding the house and the subdued nature, demands Ada to comply with his will. The way he commands Ada to make sacrifices for his purpose (e.g. her piano for more land), tries to force himself upon her, locks her up when he finds out about her affair with Baines, and how he severs her finger when she does not conform, point towards Stewart's attitude that he has the right to claim total submission of her persona and reduce her into one single object his wife.

Baines, on the other hand, listens to Ada when she plays the piano (e.g. on the beach), and after the session on the beach Baines proposes a swap of his 80 acres of land for the piano to Stewart. By regarding the piano as an indexical sign for Ada's true personality it would mean that Baines truly sees Ada as an individual. Even though Baines bought the piano from Stewart, he does not see it as his possession. Baines seems to understand that whatever he is doing to the piano he is doing to Ada, the piano is an extension of her persona. This would explain why Baines takes care of the piano with such affection (e.g. having it tuned without being asked, wiping the piano clean with his own clothes). What is striking is how Baines also treats Ada with respect. Rather than using the piano as a tool of extortion to get what he wants, he bargains with her, giving her a certain control of the situation (e.g. Ada strikes the deal one lesson for every black key, instead of all keys that he aimed at). Baines even hands the piano back to Ada (not to Stewart as Stewart thought, being afraid of having to return the 80 acres of land) when he feels the situation is becoming dangerous for both of them. Baines comment on Ada running the risk of becoming a whore and he wretched, if their deal continues, also suggests that Baines feels the bargain corrupts them, making their actions devious. Baines is passionately in love with her and wants Ada to genuinely care for him, and the bargain hinders that.

Resume

The breakdown above brings out the dynamics in the story, and by placing it in a binary chart (see below) it clarifies the moral standpoint conveyed in the film. It also clarifies the two choices Ada is confronted with, and provides us with a deeper understanding of her motivation to risk everything by engaging in a close relationship with Baines. What is interesting is the fact that in the beginning of the film Ada is a conventional passive female character, and it is not until Baines breaks her cage (when he literally rips her clothes off) she becomes an active participant in the story and she takes on the whole driving force of the narrative in her quest for freedom and independence (referred to as her strong will). In the process she risks losing her piano, Baines, and foremost her daughter, something that can be seen in Flora's shifting loyalty from Ada to Stewart. The progression from passive to active female character has a price. Stewart, as a representative for old values, punishes Ada by robbing her of the one thing that helped her endure the oppression her ability to play piano. However, by gaining freedom the acute importance of the piano as the communicator of her persona is rendered unnecessary.

Adas character progression

Ada McGrath

Passive ‡ Active ‡ Punished ‡ Free

Binary Model

Bad Good

Old Values New Values

Stewart Baines

Morag & Nessie Ada & Flora

Inherent Rights Respect

Mono Culture Mixed Culture

Oppressive Free

Patriarchy Independency

The way ‘The Piano' presents two different cultural values, and having Ada to decide whether to conform or struggle for freedom and respect as an individual, is in many respects quite similar to how ‘The English Patient' presents the same choice of either conformity or freedom. However, Katharine and Hana as characters are not offered a choice, the two different cultural conditions they exist in display instead the consequences a female persona will face if she thirsts for independence, and halfway either conform or follow the struggle through.

The English Patient

The two female characters in ‘The English Patient' were set up in contrast to each other due to the non-linear narrative timeline, which made it interesting to study these two characters on an opposing scale. As in the previous analysis two types of structural models will be used, binary and progressive; the focus is on action of characters, surroundings, and interaction with male characters.

Denotative Katharine Hana

Environment Desert Forest

Country English Canadian

Skills Upper Class Lower Class

Clothes Female Male / Female

Men Almashy Kip

Connotative Katharine Hana

Environment Death Life

Country Old Values New Values

Skills Social Survival

Clothes Fashionable Functional

Men Possessive Equal

Environment

Throughout the story Katharine is in either the desert or in Cairo; however, the majority of her narrative exposure is in the desert, an environment with strong connotations of extreme danger which, without the right knowledge, will lead to certain death. Katharine is presented as possessing no knowledge at all on how to survive in the desert or the Egyptian culture since Almashy constantly informs her on these subjects (e.g. Almashy tells her after the sandstorm where there is water to be found, Almashy informs Katharine she insulted the Egyptians when she did not bargain at the market place). Katharine's vulnerability can also be found in the company of the British National Geographic Expedition (a.k.a. the International Sand Club) where she is the only female. A visual example is in the desert during the game ‘Spinning the bottle' when Katharine tells the male entourage the tale of Candaules. She is standing up in front of the group of sitting men, exposed to their gaze, while she tells the tale of a woman who outwits her husband when he has another man gazing at her when she is naked due to a bet that she is the most beautiful woman alive (bearing in mind the previous two men in the game sang songs that had the whole company participating Katharine's performance is watched as if she was on a theatre stage). The desert is also the environment in which she both dies and her body is disposed. The desert could be read as a visual symbol for a patriarchy in which a feminine self-created identity, represented by Katharine, perishes.

The character Hana is presented in Italy, and in contrast to the Egyptian desert it has a flourishing nature with green vegetation, which implies good living conditions. The Italian nature has less sense of vulnerability, and rather, creates a serene and safe environment full of life. Hana is a nurse, and it is a profession that generally focuses on protecting and saving life (despite the fact a nurse cut off Caravaggio's thumbs). Danger does exist in this environment, although it is implemented by man due to war and not because of the traits of the nature, even so it still has the connotation of a sanctuary (e.g. the monastery) where Hana, on her own accord, creates a safe haven for Almashy, Caravaggio and Kip both physically and emotionally. Hana, in contrast to Katharine, is fully capable of taking care of herself and is also regarded so by other men (e.g. she creates a vegetable garden, fixes the stairs with books, and how she demands a gun and a lot of morphine and gets it are all examples of this).

Country

Katharine is an English Rose beautiful, sophisticated, and traditional (e.g. the entire International Sand Club move from the ‘male-only' long bar to the lounge where Katharine is sitting, her comments on Almashy's monograph, and she conforms to the patriarchy ‘male-only' policy exemplified in the long bar). The connotation of England representing traditional and old values becomes valid since it is has Canada on an opposing scale. In the beginning of the 10's the British Empire was at its peak, which is the era of Katharine; Canada sprung out of the British Empire, and attained autonomy as late as 11. It is a young country with a young history that has created a new culture with new values; otherwise there would not be any reason striving for independency. In the story Hana is presented in mid 140. The country she represents has been self-governed for a decade, and traits of independence can be found in the narrative active character Hana (e.g. She decides to stay at the monastery, she demands a gun and morphine from her superior officer, she demands to be let in when Kip is mourning in the barn, she bicycles to Kip when he is vulnerable by the bomb, and by bringing the olive oil she makes the first advances towards an intimate relationship with Kip when Katharine makes the same gesture, giving her drawings to Almashy, it has fatal consequences in the end of the story).

Skills

As mentioned above, Katharine is, in many respects, highly cultivated (e.g. the way she outwits Almashy when talking about his monograph and makes the rest of the members of the International Sand Club laugh); she is a socialite who reads a lot, and she knows how to dance, dress, and behave in an appropriate manner. Katharine is part of a high society where survival skills have been replaced with social graces. She is an ornament in the company of men because she is lovely to look at and charming to talk to, other than that she is regarded as useless (e.g. Almashy rejects her drawings since they took photographs instead which are more accurate according to him, Geoffrey jokes that Katharine is constantly taking a bath, Almashy tells her to use the spade next to her rather than digging up the trapped men after the sand storm with her hands, Katharine even says the moment after the accident "Let me help" there is no reply as if no one even listened).

In this case Hana is the direct opposite. She even tells Almashy, after they have just moved into the monastery, that she does not know anything, as a reply to Almashy's question whether she knows about Herodotus. Even though Hana reads slowly, and Almashy has to correct her pronunciation on Candaules, she is not badly educated (e.g. she can read and play the piano); she has a strong work ethic and seems to have gained respect by being very good at what she does being a nurse (e.g. despite the fact that Almashy is dying she still gives him the best treatment she can, her superior officer tries to reason with her rather than giving her an order when she wants to stay at the monastery). As mentioned earlier, Hana is capable of taking care of herself, which makes her a survivalist. Katharine, on the other hand, cannot even sew, while Hana knows how to cook, plant a garden, wash, fix stair cases, make and put up a sun-block for Almashy, and sew. This knowledge suggests Hana is of lower class than Katharine if contrasted; however, following the line of old vs. new values it could also be seen as necessary skills for a woman who does not want to be dependent on anyone.

Clothes

The garments of Katharine and Hana could be studied on two levels Fashionable vs. Functional and Female vs. Male. In Katharine's case it is obvious that every garment she wears are designed for females and the main purpose of her clothes are to be fashionable (i.e. agreeable to look at), and she shifts between two sorts of kits Trousers and a jacket or dresses. Katharine's clothes cement her objectified identity as a woman by having to wear clothes that are not suitable for action, which makes passivity seem more natural. Hana, on the contrary, uses clothes in a more functional way, and has a more interesting connotation attached to her cross-dressing behaviour. The first image of Hana is on the train where she wears a typical female nurse uniform (blue shirt with white collar that has rounded edges, white apron, and a white kerchief), in the next scene (at the army camp) she wears a standard military uniform. This radical shift from female to male clothing (based on the premise that combat uniforms still are regarded to have a male connotation) suggests Hana has both female and male privileges (i.e. being femininely attractive (e.g. the relationship with Kip) and have male activity (e.g. making the first advances on Kip, staying at the monastery)), which later converge in a cross-dress outfit consisting of a blue dress with red roses and a military uniform jacket; although the reason for this cross-dressing is logically motivated as out of function and practicality.

Men

Katharine involves her self with two men (her husband Geoffrey and Count Almashy) who, just as she, are products of their culture and class. Both Geoffrey and Almashy have one trait in common possessiveness. As a woman, Katharine's class and culture defines her as an ornament (i.e. an object), which logically makes the men, of the same culture, into owners of that object. Examples of this are when Almashy follows Katharine at the market (both before and after their encounter, something which Katharine finds is a bit predatory); Almashy and Katharine are in bed for the second time, he claims a part of her body as one would claim land; Almashy, drunk at the dinner, confronts Katharine and demands that what belongs to him has to be returned (i.e. Katharine). In the end Katharine becomes paralysed after the crash and literally becomes a passive object, who is then completely dependent on Almashy. Geoffrey's possessive mannerism is rather latent (e.g. he does not ask the International Sand Club to join his wife in the lounge, and he asks Almashy in the desert when he has to leave for Cairo "Why are you so afraid of a woman?" (A remark open for interpretation, although in this case it is read as if there is nothing to be afraid of since she is only a woman)), however, in the end of the story Geoffrey tries to kill them all three by crashing his plane, with Katharine in it, on to Almashy as if the motivation behind his action was that if he cannot have Katharine no one, and definitely not Alsmalsy, is going to either.

Hana, too, has two men in the story; one is only mentioned in the beginning and with the news that he is dead. Kip, in comparison to Geoffrey and Almashy, has a completely different attitude towards women (e.g. the shells with burning oil leading to the barn, giving Hana the option to follow or not; On Hana's question whether Kip would go look for her if she one day would not come around, he replies that he would try not to expect her), this suggests that Kip regards Hana with respect since he recognises she has a will of her own, and he does not aggressively pursues her; he also confides his feelings to her concerning something else than about their relationship (e.g. after Hardy's death). Another man who respects Hana's independence is also, as pointed out earlier, her superior officer.

Resume

In a binary model the moral standpoint in the story becomes more evident. If life and death are the symbols for what is good and bad in this story, the model will clearly make a distinction between new and old values. The relationship between Hana and Kip is not only the physical embodiment of independent individuals, as described earlier, it also renders a positive connotation to mixed culture since Hana and Kip derive from Western European and Sikh contexts (in comparison with Katharine and Almashy who both come from Western European cultures England and Hungary). Their professions are also in stark contrast to what Katharine and Almashy do for a living; Hana and Kip both work to save lives (i.e. Nurse and Mine Sweeper) and have strong work ethics (e.g. Kip goes to the bomb, Hana refuses to give Almashy a cigarette) while Katharine is a full-time wife, and Almashy draws map that later in the story bring death and destruction to the people of Tobruk.

Binary Model

Bad Good

Old Values New Values

Katharine Hana

Almashy Kip

Passive Active

Mono Culture Mixed Culture

Patriarchy Independence

No Work Work Ethic

Death Life

Progressive Model

Katharine / Hana

Passive ‡ Active ‡ Punished ‡ Active ‡ Free

When studying the progression of the female character a suggestion, to regard Hana and Katharine as one female identity, has to be made. This notion to merge these two opposing characters becomes more valid when arguing that the focus is on the development (i.e. the progression) of the female identity as a concept. In the actual timeline of the narration Hana's story follows Katharine's, and breaking down their individual progressions it seems as they do follow each other in the development as well. Additionally both characters cherish independency, i.e. to follow their own will, making them similar as types of characters, although Katharine conforms and Hana does not. In the beginning of the story Katharine is a passive female character, when she breaks into activity (e.g. She gives her drawings to Almashy; She goes to Almashy's hotel room) she is punished by a lonely death in the desert; Hana's story starts with her being punished (e.g. the death of her boyfriend, and the death of her friend Jan), she still possesses narrative activity (e.g. She decides to stay in the monastery; She bicycles to find Kip, on request she decides to give Almashy an overdose of morphine), and is rewarded when Kip survives the bomb, the declaration of peace, and she is travelling to Florins where Kip is being stationed. A strong visual sign of independent female identity is presented in the end with the Italian woman Gioia at the wheel of a truck, with Hana on the back of it together with a young girl (i.e. the coming generation of women); when the truck is driving down the road the cypresses are initially blocking the sun like prison bars to eventually stop so the sun shines freely on Hana's face.

It is inevitable to wonder why Katharine has to die while Hana lives; one reason, that would explain both Ada's severed finger and Katharine's death, is that infidelity is still regarded as a negative and bad action on the whole no matter how it is justified. This is yet another argument supporting the idea that Katharine and Hana can be studied as one; Ada's finger is Katharine's death it is a punishment for the same wrongdoing, which makes Hana the Phoenix that rises out of the ashes of Katharine. In ‘Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon' Shu Lien is punished for the opposite reason, as she takes the notion of fidelity to an extreme since she does not want to dishonour her dead fiance by getting involved in a relationship with his best friend, Li Mu Bai. ‘Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon' does address the same subject matter as the previous two films, although the approach is somewhat different, giving the opportunity to study the subject from an altered angle.

Bibliography

1. Cook, P. The Cinema Book. London The British Film Institute, 16.

. Lvi-Strauss, C. Structural Anthropology. Harmondsworth Penguin Books Ltd, 17.

. Sturrock, J. Structuralism and Since. Oxford Oxford University Press, 10.

4. Sarup, M. An Introductory Guide to Post-Structuralism and Postmodernism nd Edition.

London Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1.

5. Leach, E. Claude Lvi-Strauss. Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1.

6. Stam, Burgoyne, Flitterman-Lewis. New Vocabulary in Film Semiotics.

London T J International Ltd, 1.

7. Wright, W. Sixguns and Society. Berkely University of California Press, 175.

8. [on line] http//www.lone-star.net/literature/beowulf/beowulf.htm Accessed 1 Dec 00]

Filmography

The Piano. (dir. Jane Campion, 1, CIBY 000 / Jan Chapman Production)

The English Patient. (dir. Anthony Minghella, 16, Miramax Films)

Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon. (dir. Ang Lee, 000, Colombia Pictures Film Production Asia)

Please note that this sample paper on VOICES WITH INTEGRITYA structural study on the portrayal of the female character in The Piano, The English Patient and Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on VOICES WITH INTEGRITYA structural study on the portrayal of the female character in The Piano, The English Patient and Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on VOICES WITH INTEGRITYA structural study on the portrayal of the female character in The Piano, The English Patient and Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

Genetic Impairment of New Ventures

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A. Introduction

While the relative importance of the small business sector to the economic growth of the US is still debated (Harrison, 14), it is clear that the small business sector is important enough to warrant research and discussion. There are many reasons for the increase in importance of the small business sector. One of the most apparent reasons is the increase in information based resources which has lead to technological change favoring small firms. One of the more dramatic examples is steel making where large integrated fabricating facilities are being replaced by small firms (Starr, 188). Other sources of small firm growth relative to large firm growth in the U.S. are 1) the increased rate of outsourcing, ) increase in deregulation, ) computerization, and 4) changes in financial markets.

Although the emphasis has been on the job generating ability of the entrepreneur in the creation of these small businesses, the importance of small business goes beyond the potential for job creation. These new business starts have been shown to lead to periods of more robust economic activity overall (Highfield and Smiley, 187) and contribute to economic wealth creation. On the other hand, business discontinuance is damaging to the efficient operation of a market when it results in bankruptcy and financial loss to creditors. The fundamental importance of small business to a nations economy has led public policy makers and researchers to look for factors that predict a firms chances for success and survival.

The economics literature has devoted attention to analyzing the firm in terms of market structure, industrial concentration and market efficiency. Relatively little work has been done on why firms come into existence and why some decide to cease operation (Hudson, 18). Lane and Schary (11) conclude that business failure/survival is certainly under-analyzed. More research on this significant issue can only improve our knowledge and enhance the probability of business survival.

Small business longevity is investigated in this study, building on the work by Holmes and Schmitz (15). Based on their model, there are two reasons why a business might fail. One, the match between the owner and the business is weak. This might occur where nontechnical individuals get involved in ventures that require detailed technical knowledge or when a single parent with six children under ten gets involved with a business that requires 60-80 hours a week out of their home. Two, the characteristics of the business are fatally flawed. The new firm might be located where it is inaccessible to targeted customers, or the main product suffers an unexpected defect.

We contribute to this research in two ways. First, we analyze the three dimensions in terms of problems that evidence themselves at the start-up of the venture. The severity of start-up problems or the ability of the entrepreneur to cope with the start-up problems appear to be important concepts that have yet to be incorporated into the models that attempt to explain survival. In this research we hypothesize that start-up problems that are difficult to overcome create a genetic impairment for the new firm. This genetic impairment then causes the new firm to discontinue. Firms will discontinue because the genetic impairment, was impossible to overcome. This may be due to conditions where entrepreneurs didnt posses the individual characteristics necessary for self-employment, because the match was bad, or because the business dimensions were not conducive to survival. Thus a fatal combination of factors produces a genetic impairment, precluding the possibility of survival. It would be substantially beneficial to entrepreneurs, their advisors, and to those who commit resources to their ventures to identify factors at start-up that hinder the survival of the firm.

Second, the dimension of the individual is added to the first two dimensions. Some entrepreneurs are not suited for self-employment or entrepreneurship regardless of the business match or business quality, and the business fails due to their lack of necessary skills. For example, a certain degree of literacy is required to file the forms necessary for any business venture, and a certain amount of financial skill is required to accrue funds for payments. Entrepreneurs are likely to differ in the stock of resources they can bring to the creation of new ventures. To the extent that these factors render firms vulnerable, firms begun by these sub-populations would seem more likely to die while emerging, or exhibit the liability of newness.

The article proceeds as follows. In the next section we discuss the model and related literature. In the third section we introduce the data. The fourth section contains the analysis, and is followed by conclusions.

THE MODEL

Survival models have been utilized by Freeman, Carrol, and Hannan, 18; Bruderl and Schussler, 10; Preisendorfer and Voss, 10; Bruderl, Preisendorfer, and Zeigler, 1; and Audretsch and Manhood, 14; Mata and Portugal, 14; and Mata, Portugal, and Guimaraes, 15. The hazard model is more popular than the survival model as a way of describing the probability distribution, and is defined as

h(t) = lim Pr{t£ Tt+Dt| T ³ t} = f(t)

Dt®0 Dt S(t)

where T is the firms life duration in months, f(t) is the probability density function, and S(t) is the survival function.

Taking the log of h(t) is a convenient way to ensure that h(t) is nonnegative. A useful specification of the hazard model is the proportional hazard model [Cox (17)]. Thus our model of business discontinuance can be represented as

ln h(t) = ln h0(t) + Xb

where h(t) is the instantaneous transition rate to discontinuance, t represents time since the beginning of the study period, h0(t) represents the baseline hazard function, the X represents a set of independent variables, and the Bs are the coefficients indicating the effects of the independent variables on h(t). Since we are analyzing the effects of the start-up problems faced by the firms i.e. their degree of genetic impairment, there are no time dependent covariates, and time does not enter the right side of the equation. We assume that the independent variables are continuous and random. Of interest here is the influence of the covariates on the probability of failure, specifically the effect of start-up problems encountered and the potential genetic impairment of the new firm. The b vector can be estimated without specifing the form for the baseline hazard model, avoiding the risk of imposing the wrong probability function for that behavior.

Of importance here is what to include in the X vector. The concern of this research is to determine the effects of the genetic impairment of the firm on the duration of survival. To that end, we analyze problems discernible at start-up that fall within the dimensions of individual, match, and business qualities. A two satge process is utilized for the inclusion of some of the variables in the X vector. Starting too small has been determined to affect survival, as has undercapitalization (Bates, 18; Bates, 10; Brito and Mello, 15; Cooper, Gimeno-Gascon, and Woo, ). At the same time, it has been shown that human capital affects the initial size and capitalization of the new venture (Cooper, Gimeno-Gascon, and Woo, ). In the first stage, we predict the size of the firm (number of employees) and personal capital levels by the amount of human capital. The predicted values are then used in the X vector. This method allows for inclusion of the human capital variables while avoiding the problem of multicollinearity if they were included in the equation with size and financial start-up capital.

Size -----®

= f(Age, Ed, Ex)

Start-Up

Problems Exit

Financial Start-Up Capital

= f(Age, Ed, Ex) -----®

In addition to the start-up problems, other variables that affect survival should be included to avoid misspecification error. Researchers studying survival have classified the independent varaibles into many different sets. Variable classifications have included internal and external (Acar, 1); owner characteristics and organizational characteristics (Auster, 188); firm and industry (Amit and Schoemaker, 1; Audretsch, 15; Mata, 14); firm, industry and macroenvironment (Mata, Portugal, and Guimaraes, 15); founding team, strategy, and environment (Eisenhardt and Schoonhoven, 10); organization and environment (Chandler and Hanks, 14); structural and cyclical (Boeri and Bellmann, 15); individual (Bates, 18, Bates, 10); individual and environment (Davidsson, 11); individual, business and environment (Bruderl, Preisendorfer, and Zeigler, 1); the match (between individuals and the firm) and firm (Holmes and Schmidtz, (15). Most of the classifications can be seen as to conform to the three sets of individual characteristics, business characteristics, environmental characteristics, and interactions among these sets. In order to isolate the variables that belong in each set, look at the firm in its orientation towards a traditional goal of maximizing profits

max(PtQt-c(Qt))

Building upon Holmes and Schmitz (15) we look at Qt, the output of the venture as the result of the match component, the business component, and the individual component

Qt = Qm + Qb + Qi

where Qt measures output, Qm measures the match quality, Qb the business quality, and Qi the individual qualities of the entrepreneur. Each quality is composed of a permanent component, a stock component, and a temporary component.

Where Qm = W + A + h

Qb = X + B + m

Qi = Y + C + n

So that Qt = (W + A + h) + (X + B + m) + (Y + C + n)

Begin by looking at individuals as they start a new business. They either start their new venture by adding resources to the industry or by buying an existing business. When they initiate the process, they enter the realm of the self-employed. They begin with individual characteristics like education levels, prior entrepreneurial experience, locus of control, risk perception, and access to social networks. At that time, the location and product or service is chosen, determining the business characteristic dimension, the environmental conditions they will face, and the match quality. For cases where the new entrepreneur purchases an existing business, the business characteristics have previously been determined, i.e. location, age, type of product. Table 1 summarizes the dimensions.

Table 1

THREE DIMENSIONS OF THE NEW VENTURE

FOUR COMPONENETS OF EACH DIMENSION PERMANENT, STOCK, FLOWS THAT CHANGE THE STOCK, AND TEMPORARY1

INDIVIDUAL DIMENSION Permanent - Gender, Race, Risk Aversion, Locus of Control Stock - Age, Experience, Education, Financial Compentence, Business Skills (marketing, pricing) Flow (time) (time) (schooling) (time, schooling) (time, schooling.) Temporary - illness, childbirth

MATCH QUALITY DIMENSION- Permanent - # of Partners ??? Stock - Understand Industry Trends, Find Qualified Employees, Expectations of Performance Flow (time, exp.) (time, exp.) (time) Temporary - Strike

BUSINESS QUALITY DIMENSION Permanent - Location, Industry Stock - # of Product Lines, Population, Income/cap, Age, Infrastructure, Government Regulations, Size Flow (new products) (D Pop) (D Income) (time) (new airport, etc.) (D in Regs) (time)Temporary - Road closing, Flood, Olympic site

1. Flow variables that affect the stock components are included in parentheses under the appropriate stock

variable.

The result of the genetic impairment can cause a business discontinuance at any point in time after the start-up. The stronger the impairment, the sooner the firm succumbs to hte hazard, and discontinues. After controlling for the match, individual, and business qualities, the new firms are in the same risk pool as other firms started during the same time period. In order to understand the timing of the event of a buiness discontinuance, we apply the methods of survival analysis - sometimes called duration analysis in the economics literature. One of the aims of the study is to establish a causal model of business discontinuance in which the effect of the different start-up problems can be estimated. To this end, a logistic regression model could be estimated, and would be an acceptable first attempt to understand the causal relationships. The logit model could explain the causal relationship between start-up problems and the continuation or discontinuance of an individual firm. An improvement on the logit model is the survival model which includes the length of time until discontinuance. Firms that discontinue sooner have a higher propensity to discontinue and ignoring that reduces the usefulness of the causal model.

Econometric Issues

a)

Potential data problems encountered in using longitudinal data include left censoring, right censoring, and left truncation. These terms are used in different ways by researchers in different fields. We use them in the following way

Let B = birth, D = death, A = beginning of the observation period, and E = end of observation period

A E

Firm #1 B----------------------D------

Firm # B-----------------------------D----

Firm # B-------------------------------

We begin to follow firms at point A with both a retrospective and prospective look. We know the survival times of firms one and two. Firm number three is still surviving and is considered right censored. Firms that are included in the sample at point of observation A and discontinue at some time less than E are considered left censored. Because most of the firms were alive prior to point A, but there is not enough retrospective data on each firm, this contributes left truncation. Both left and right censoring can be handled by survival models. Using age prior to point A is one method for handling the problem of left truncation. Taking right-censored cases into account, the survivor function shows which percentage of firms survived at each time t after birth. The hazard function, on the other hand, displays the risk of dying, the failure rate, or simply the rate at each time t i.e. the instantaneous probability of failing at time t given that failure had not occurred before time t.

b) Heterogeneity. To control for heterogeneity we present a fully specified model in addition to the model which includes measurements of start-up problems as covariates. Comparison of the models not only allows a test for the robustness of the genetic impairment coefficients, but reduces the concern of biased coefficients due to heterogeneity.

c) Sample selection. This problem arises because data sets that utilize large questionnaires are usually respective as well as perspective. Firms included in the original dataset have already survived for a certain period of time. Those most prone to survival might have already succumbed to the hazard of discontinuance. However previous results have shown

Sources of Data

Data for assessing start-up characteristics of new ventures were collected in 186 via a survey of new firms in Minnesota and Pennsylvania. For a description of initial database see (Reynolds and Freeman, 187; Reynolds and Miller, 188). All regions of both states were represented. The sample was based on firms listed by Duns Marketing Identifier (DMI) files as between one and six years-old just prior to the survey. Phone call verification excluded all listings that were not new, autonomous, and active, with about one-half of the listings qualifying. Each eligible new firm was mailed a questionnaire-three times if necessary-with a reminder post-card sent between the first and second mailings. Phone interviews were completed with about half of those firms that did not return the mail questionnaire. The final response rate was 6%.

Subsequent phone interviews to verify the status of the respondents to the initial survey were completed in 1. Five categories of responses were noted (1) firms that were still in operation at the time of 1 survey, () firms that were confirmed to be out of business, () firms that were dormant at the time of the 1 survey, (4) firms that had been sold or merged, and (5) firms we were unable to contact despite multiple follow-up strategies. The follow-up strategies included calling information operators in the area code of the original contact, accessing current Dun and Bradstreet Credit information and visiting the original site of the business. Since it is difficult to judge whether firms that were dormant and/or those that were sold or merged can be classified as surviving for the present analysis, firms in these two categories were disregarded in one model and included in the other. Comparison of the results allows one to test for the robustness of the estimators. Furthermore, persistence in contacting the firms in the sample provided confidence in categorizing those that were unable to be located as discontinued firms.

VARIABLE MEASURES

Genetic impairment of the Firm

The genetic impairment of the firm can be operationalized by measuring the start-up problems perceived by the founders along the individual dimensions, the match dimensions, and the business quality dimensions. These include labor and land accessibility and quality, conditions of the infrastructure, rent levels, local government regulations and level of business support, motivating employees, understanding industry trends and customer needs, selecting/developing a site, and finding qualified managers or professional staff, accountants, attorneys.

OTHER COVARIATES

Initial Size and Age of the Start-Up Firm

Much of the literature on firm survival also includes analysis of firm growth. Size of the firm at birth is included in the majority of studies in an attempt to test the validity of Gibrarts Law of Proportionate Growth, i.e. is the firms actual growth determined by random processes. Most of the studies reject Gibrarts Law (Chesher, 17; Kumar, 185; Evans, 187a, Evans, 187b, Hall, 187; Contini and Revelli, 18; Dunne, Roberts, and Samuelson, 18; Acs and Audretsch, 10; Acar, 1; Dunne and Hughes, 14; Mata and portugal, 14; Geroski, 15; Doms, Dunne, and Roberts, 15. Many of the studies also analyze the effect of initial size of the firm on the probability of survival and find the effect of size is inversely related to the probability of failure, and the effect is significant (Aldrich and Auster, 186; Evans, 187a; Auster, 188; Dunne, Roberts, and Samuelson, 18; Phillips, 1; Mata and Portugal, 14; Mata, Portugal, and Guimaraes, 15; Audretsch, 15; Doms, Dunne, and Roberts, 15).

Age of the firm is also included as a covariate, younger firms have drawbacks, barriers to overcome, and must travel down the learning curve. All firms are affected by changes in the external environment, but new firms tend to have a small number of product lines, few key resources, and the absence of deep pockets, making them more vulnerable. Several studies have documented a positive and significant relationship between age and survival rates for small businesses (Aldrich and Auster, 186; Evans, 187b; Hall, 187; Auster, 188; Dunne, Roberts, and Samuelson, 18; Bates, 10; Lane and Schary, 11; Dunne and Hughes, 14; Audrestch and Mahmood, 15; Doms, Dunne, and Roberts, 15).

Location is another factor cited as an external influence. It is a common belief that rural locations are hostile to firm survival and growth. Skilled labor is lacking, and the infrastructure is immature. Preisendorfer and Voss (10), in their study of 78,441 small firms in West Germany use location (Munich area, other towns in Upper Bavaria, rural areas) as a covariate and find it to be highly significant, although in the unexpected direction. In that study, town relative to rural location had a positive effect on the mortality rate of new businesses. Buss and Lin (10) find that urban and rural survival rates are comparable, although some industries fare better than others. Reynolds (187) found that survival rates were nearly identical for urban and rural areas. Comparing larger geographic regions, Lane and Schary (11) find that certain regions have higher failure rates, with the failure rate in the Pacific region nearly twice that of the next highest region, the Mid-Atlantic.

Income

Income in the area surrounding the business was found to be significant in explaining business profitability and survival (Auster, 188). On the national level, increases in income, strength in the economy and the increase in new firms may result in an increase in the overall failure rates due to the high failure rate among new firms (Lane and Schary, 11).

Race and/or Gender

Auster (188) finds that black business owners had less education and less experience in business, that black businesses were less profitable and smaller, located in poorer neighborhoods, more likely to rent, less likely to insure, and handled fewer customers. But, this study found that black businesses survived at the same rate as other businesses in the sample.

Entrepreneurial Human Capital (Age, Experience, Eductaion, etc.)

The other way age is incorporated into survival models is to analyze the age of the founder as a proxy for one measurement of human capital that the entrepreneur brings to the firm. The supposition that survival rates differ between new firms founded by entrepreneurs according to the degree of human capital inputs has received support. Research findings indicate that entrepreneurs are more likely to survive if they enter with prior management experience, high levels of education, or experience from owning prior businesses. Those aged 55 and over were more likely to discontinue, with those in the 45-55 group most likely to survive (Bates, 10).

In addition we used the average age of the start-up team (AVERAGE), the average number of previous businesses started by this team, and the average number of previous managerial positions held by members of the team. On the questionnaire the respondents were asked to indicate their level of education where

The number for each team was added and then averaged. The analysis was calculated for the nine sectors Agriculture, Mining, Construction, Durable Manufacturing, Nondurable Manufacturing, Wholesale Trade, Resale Trade, and Services. The results appear in the following tables.

Bibliography

Aldrich, H. and Auster, 186 Even Dwarfs started small Liabilities of age and size and their strategic implications. In L. Cumming and B. Staw (eds.) Research in Organizational Behavior, 8 165-18. San Francisco JAI Press.

Auster, E.R. Owner and Organizational Characteristics of Black-and White-Owned Businesses American Journal of Economics and Sociology Vol 47, No. (July, 188).

Cooper, A.C. and Dunkelberg, W.C. A new look at business entry experiences of 1805 Entrepreneurs.

Journal of Small Business Management

Freeman, J., Carroll G.R., and Hannan, M.T. (18) The liability of newness Age dependence in organizational death rates. American Sociological Review, 48 6-710.

Lane, S.J. and Schary, M., (11) Understanding the Business Failure Rate. Contemporary Policy Issues, vol IX, oct 11.

Reynolds, P. and Brenda Miller (18) New Firm Survival Analysis of a Panels Fourth Year Discussion Paper 115 Strategic Management Research Center may 18 Univer of minnesota

Singh, J. V., Tucker, D. J., and House, R. j (186) Organizational legitimacy and the liability of newness. ASQ 1 171-1.

Smallbone, d. Success and Failure in New Business Startups International Small Business Journal 8,

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History

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In this first tutorial, you will meet your tutor, and learn a little more about the course including various important administrative and procedural details, assessments, what you can expect from the course, what is expected of you, and how to volunteer to act as a participant in psychological research conducted within the Schools of Psychology and Education. You will spend some time in this tutorial going through the course outline.

INTRODUCTION TO INTELLIGENCE AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES.

For the remainder of the tutorial we will discuss a number of issues related to the topic Intelligence. You will complete a test of intellectual ability call the Dove test and you will complete an exercise first conducted by Halla Beloff at Edinburgh University in 1.

The Dove Counterbalance Intelligence Test (from Coon, 1)

Almost everyone is curious about how they would score on an intelligence test. If you would like to get a rough estimate of your IQ, take the following self-administered test.

Time limit 5 minutes

Circle the correct answer.

1. T-bone Walker got famous for playing what?

a. Trombone

b. Piano

c. T-flute

d. Guitar

e. "hambone"

. A "gas head" is a person who has a

a. Fast-moving car

b. Stable of "lace"

c. "process"

d. habit of stealing cars

e. a long jail record for arson

. If you throw the dice and 7 is on top, what is facing down.

a. 7

b. snake eyes

c. boxcars

d. little joes

e. 11

4. Cheap chitlings (not the kind you purchase at a frozen food counter) will taste rubbery unless they are cooked long enough. How soon can you quit cooking them to eat and enjoy them?

a. 45 minutes

b. two hours

c. 4 hours

d. one week (on a low flame)

e. one hour

5. Bird or Yardbird was the jacket jazz lovers from coast to coast hung on?

a. Lester Young

b. Peggy Lee

c. Benny Goodman

d. Charlie Parker

e. Birdman of Alcatraz

6. A "handkerchief head" is

a. A cool cat

b. A porter

c. An Uncle Tom

d. A hoodi

e. A preacher

7. Jet is

a. An East Oakland motorcycle club

b. One of the gangs in West Side Story

c. A news and gossip magazine

d. A way of life for the very rich

8. "Bo Diddly" is a

a. game for children

b. down-home cheap wine

c. down-home singer

d. new dance

e. Moejoe call

. Which word is most out of place here?

a. Splib

b. Blood

c. Gray

d. Black

e. Spook

10. If a pimp is uptight with a woman who gets state aid, what does he mean when he talks about "Mother's Day"?

a. Second Sunday in May

b. Third Sunday in June

c. First of every month

d. None of these

e. First and fifteenth of every month

11. How much does a "short dog" cost?

a. 15c

b. $

c. 5c

d. 5c

e. $1.1 plus tax

1. Many people say that "Juneteenth" (June 10th) should be made a legal holiday because this was the day when

a. The slaves were freed in the United States

b. The slaves were freed in Texas

c. The slaves were freed in Jamaica

d. The slaves were freed in California

e. Martin Luther king Jr was born

f. Booker T. Washington died.

1. If a man is called a "blood", then he is

a. Fighter

b. Mexican-American

c. Black

d. Hungry hemophile

e. Red man or Indian

14. What are the Dixie Hummingbirds?

a. A part of the KKK

b. A swamp disease

c. A modern gospel group

d. A Mississippi Negro paramilitary strike force

e. Deacons

15. The opposite of square is

a. Round

b. Up

c. Down

d. Hip

e. Lame

Your tutor will provide you with the answers.

If you scored 14 on this exam, your IQ is approximately 100, indicating average intelligence. If you scored 11 or less, you are mentally retarded. With luck, and the help of a special educational program, we may be able to teach you a few simple skills!

DISCUSSION

1. This test is a little unfair. Why?

. How do you think the fairness of this test compares with other measures of IQ?

Beloff Experiment.

Please fill out the table Below. When estimating IQ scores please do not go below the 70 as a minimum and do not go above 150 as a Maximum.

My Gender is…. (circle) Male / Female

I estimate my IQ to be…

I estimate my mother's IQ to be…

I estimate my father's IQ to be…

We will collect the results of this exercise and let you know what we found next week.

WEEK - MEASURING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND INTELLIGENCE.

This tutorial will cover measuring individual differences, measures of variability and intelligence.

1. Beloff Results and Discussion

Insert results and labels in the table below.

Own IQ estimate

Mother's IQ estimate

Father's IQ estimate

DISCUSSION

1. Did we get the same results as Beloff?

. What might be some reasons why we found the results that we did?

. Evaluation and Comparison of Scores

If we want to evaluate a subjects individual performance on two tests, say Test A and Test B, then comparing her raw score would not be particularly informative if both the tests have different means and standard deviations. For instance, a score of 0 on Test A may be the highest score, but on Test B it may be the lowest score.

Individual raw scores need to be considered in relation to the rest of the groups performance for any comparison across tests to be meaningful. That is, the raw score needs to be transformed into a new score which takes the rest of the group (or a specified comparison group, as in test norms) into account. There are two ways that raw scores can be transformed so that comparisons can be made percentile ranks and standard scores.

.1 Percentile Ranks

If an individual performance is expressed as a rank (first, third etc. in the group) we can evaluate the performance more readily than with a raw score. However, the rank score, by itself, does not take into account the size of the group. It may sound quite good if one is third in a race but not if there were only two other competitors.

Percentile ranks do take into account the size of the group. The percentile rank for a particular score indicates the percentage of the group that obtained that score or a lower score.

To obtain percentile ranks the frequency distribution of scores needs to be converted to a cumulative frequency distribution. The cumulative frequency distribution indicates for each score how many in the group have obtained at most that score. For example, consider the following table over the page

Score Frequency CumulativeFrequency Percentile Rank

10876541 564511610 50455011040 50/50 x 100 = 100%45/50 x 100 = 0%/50 x 100 = 78%5/50 x 100 = 70%0/50 x 100 = 60%1/50 x 100 = 8%10/50 x 100 = 0%4/50 x 100 = 8%/50 x 100 = 6%0/50 x 100 = 0%

The cumulative frequency (cf) column is obtained by adding each frequency successively, starting at the bottom of the frequency column. So that, for a score of or below the cf is (0 + ); for a score of or below the cf is 4 (0 + + 1); for a score of 4 or below the cf is 10 (0 + + 1 + 6) etc., until for the highest score of 10 the cf must be equal to the total number of people in the group, namely 50. In other words we can say that everybody in the group got a score of 10 or below.

These cumulative frequencies can then be expressed as a percentage of the group size by dividing each cumulative frequency by N, in this case 50, and multiplying by 100 (to turn the fraction cf / N into a percentage).

From the percentile rank column it can be seen that 60% of the group got a score of 6 or less and 78% got a score of 8 or less, etc. In other words, the larger the percentile rank the better the performance.

Note that the percentile rank is based on the percentage of the group of subjects and does not express the obtained score as a percentage of some maximum possible score. To say that a score of 5 corresponds with a percentile rank of 8% means that 8% of the people in the group obtained a score of 5 or below, not that a score of 5 is 8% of the maximum possible score.

While percentile ranks take into account group size, like ordinary ranks, they do not provide information about the size of raw score differences in what is being measured between one rank and the next. A student who comes third in a class test may have a mark which is very close to the student who came second, while the difference in scores between the first and second students may be large. A measure which does express individual performance in terms of the group size while retaining information about the size of raw score differences is the standard score.

. Standard Scores or z?Scores

A standard score expresses a raw score in terms of its distance from the mean, where this distance is measured in units of (or multiples of) the standard deviation. For example, if a distribution of scores has a = 50 and s = 10, then a raw score of 70, which is 0 scores above the mean, can also be expressed as standard deviation units above the mean, since in this case one unit of standard deviation = 10 scores, so 0 scores = x 10 = units of standard deviation. We say that a score of 70 corresponds to a z?score of + . So standard scores or z?scores indicate in standard deviation units how far above or below the mean a raw score is.

Before the mathematical formula is introduced, consider the following example. A subject obtains the following scores on Test A and Test B, the group means and standard deviations for both tests are also given

Test X S

AB 6560 5550 1510

On which test has she performed the best? In comparing the raw scores we may be tempted to conclude that Test A is the better performance because 65 is higher than 60. However, if we take into account the means and calculate deviation scores

For Test A x = X - = 65 - 55 = 10

For Test B x = X - = 60 - 50 = 10

We can see that both raw scores are the same distance from their respective means. The important question becomes how large is a deviation score of 10 relative to the size of the average amount of deviation for each group? For each test we need to evaluate the deviation distance of 10 as multiples or fractions of the standard deviation.

For Test A, since S = 15, a deviation score of 10 is equal to two thirds of a standard deviation unit (10115 /), while for Test B, since S = 10, a deviation score of 10 is equal to one unit of standard deviation (10/10 = 1). Summarising, a score of 65 on Test A is only two thirds of a standard deviation above the mean, while for Test B a score of 60 is one standard deviation above the mean. Therefore, the subjects performance on Test B, relative to the rest of the group is superior to her performance on Test A.

The above procedure is summarised by the mathematical formula for a standard score or z?score

That is, a raw score is transformed into a z?score by dividing the individuals deviation score by the group standard deviation.

In calculating the deviation score it is important that the mean is subtracted from the raw score, so that the sign (positive or negative) is in the appropriate direction. In this way a score larger than the mean will lead to a positive z?score, a below average score will lead to a negative z?score and where a score does not deviate from the mean the z?score will be zero.

Example

The mean and standard deviation for a group of scores are = 55 and SD = 6. For three subjects from the group, express their raw scores as z?scores.

Person A 47

Person B 55

Person C 6

Solution

Person A

Person B

Person C

Person As raw score is 1. standard deviations below the mean, while Cs raw score is 1. standard deviations above the mean. Person Bs raw score is the same as the mean. In other words, As performance is just as much below average as Cs is above average, while Bs performance is exactly on average.

DISCUSSION 1 Standard Scores

Find the standard score equivalent for the following scores given a mean of 45. and a standard deviation of 10.4

(a) 55

(b) 41

(c) 45.

. The Normal Curve, Percentiles and Z?Scores

If a population distribution of scores closely approximates a normal curve, then we can use some of the mathematical properties possessed by the normal curve to make statements about our population of scores. Look at Figure .7 on page 56 of your textbook Weiten to discuss normal curve, mean, median and mode.

The important concept here is that a one?to?one relationship exists between the area under the curve and the percentage of the population obtaining scores within the corresponding range.

For example, consider a normal population distribution for IQ scores where = 100 and s = 15. We can ask, for instance, what percentage of the population are likely to have IQ scores falling between 100 and 115?

To answer this we need to find the percentage of total area under the curve falling between the two scores 100 and 115. The mathematics for this is quite advanced (beyond the scope of this unit), but fortunately areas under the normal curve have been tabulated so that we can look up the area if we know the corresponding range on the horizontal axis in standard deviation units.

A score of 115 is one standard deviation above the mean of 100 (since SD = 15). The z?score equivalent of 115 is therefore +1. The tables for areas under the normal curve tell us that 4.1% of the area under the curve will fall between the mean of the distribution (z = 0) and z = +1. We can interpret this as 4.1% of the population will have IQ scores between 100 and 115.

We can also use this information to find the percentile rank corresponding to an IQ of 115. Since 50% of the population have IQ scores below 100 and 4.1% have IQ scores between 100 and 115, then adding these two percentages together, the percentile rank of 115 is 84.1%. In other words, 84.1% of people have IQ scores of 115 or below.

The important point to realise is that regardless of the mean and standard deviation of a distribution, if the scores are normally distributed then we can always say that, for instance, 5% of scores will fall between standard deviations below and above the mean (that is, between z = ? and z = + ). So with the normal curve, areas under the curve between z?score values are fixed.

If two distributions of scores are approximately normal and have the same mean and standard deviation then raw scores from each could be directly compared. However, as we have seen, when this is not the case then we convert to z?scores in order to standardise the distributions. What is meant here by standardisation is that if the original raw score distributions are transformed into z?score distributions, then these z?score distributions always have the same mean, variance and standard deviation. It can be shown algebraically that the mean of a distribution of z?scores is always zero and the variance and standard deviation are always 1.

So, when scores from distributions with different means and standard deviations are converted to z?scores, these z?scores can be directly compared because they come from distributions that have the same mean and standard deviation.

The following table gives some of the areas under the normal curve and the corresponding z scores.

Percent area under the Normal curve between the Mean and z

z .00 .01 .0 .0 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .0

0.0 00.00 00.40 00.80 01.0 01.60 01. 0. 0.7 0.1 0.5

0.1 0.8 04.8 04.78 05.17 05.57 05.6 06.6 06.75 07.14 07.5

0. 07. 08. 08.71 0.10 0.48 0.87 10.6 10.64 11.0 11.41

0. 11.7 1.17 1.55 1. 1.1 1.68 14.06 14.4 14.80 15.17

0.4 15.54 15.1 16.8 16.64 17.00 17.6 17.7 18.08 18.44 18.7

0.5 1.15 1.50 1.85 0.1 0.54 0.88 1. 1.57 1.0 .4

0.6 .57 .1 .4 .57 .8 4. 4.54 4.86 5.17 5.4

0.7 5.80 6.11 6.4 6.7 7.04 7.4 7.64 7.4 8. 8.5

0.8 8.81 .10 . .67 .5 0. 0.51 0.78 1.06 1.

0. 1.5 1.86 .1 .8 .64 .8 .15 .40 .65 .8

1.0 4.1 4.8 4.61 4.85 5.08 5.1 5.54 5.77 5. 6.1

1.1 6.4 6.65 6.86 7.08 7. 7.4 7.70 7.0 8.10 8.0

1. 8.4 8.6 8.88 .07 .5 .44 .6 .80 .7 40.15

1. 40. 40.4 40.66 40.8 40. 41.14 41.1 41.47 41.6 41.77

1.4 41. 4.07 4. 4.6 4.51 4.65 4.7 4. 4.06 4.1

1.5 4. 4.45 4.57 4.70 4.8 4.4 44.06 44.18 44. 44.41

1.6 44.5 44.6 44.74 44.84 44.5 45.05 45.15 45.5 45.5 45.45

1.7 45.54 45.64 45.7 45.8 45.1 45. 46.08 46.16 46.5 46.

1.8 46.41 46.4 46.56 46.64 46.71 46.78 46.86 46. 46. 47.06

1. 47.1 47.1 47.6 47. 47.8 47.44 47.50 47.56 47.61 47.67

.0 47.7 47.78 47.8 47.88 47. 47.8 48.0 48.08 48.1 48.17

.1 48.1 48.6 48.0 48.4 48.8 48.4 48.46 48.50 48.54 48.57

. 48.61 48.64 48.68 48.71 48.75 48.78 48.81 48.84 48.87 48.0

. 48. 48.6 48.8 4.01 4.04 4.06 4.0 4.11 4.1 4.16

.4 4.18 4.0 4. 4.5 4.7 4. 4.1 4. 4.4 4.6

.5 4.8 4.40 4.41 4.4 4.45 4.46 4.48 4.4 4.51 4.5

.6 4.5 4.55 4.56 4.57 4.5 4.60 4.61 4.6 4.6 4.64

.7 4.65 4.66 4.67 4.68 4.6 4.70 4.71 4.7 4.7 4.74

.8 4.74 4.75 4.76 4.77 4.77 4.78 4.7 4.7 4.80 4.81

. 4.81 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.84 4.84 4.85 4.85 4.86 4.86

.0 4.87

.5 4.8

4.0 4.7

5.0 4.7

DISCUSSION 1 The Normal Distribution

1. List the characteristics of the normal distribution curve

. Identify sociological, political and psychological variables which you believe

(a) are distributed normally

(b) are skewed positively

(c) are skewed negatively

. Given a normal distribution with a of 50 and a S of 10 find

(a) the proportion area between the mean and the following scores

60

80

40

(b) the proportion area above the following scores

50

60

40

(c) the proportion area between the following scores

60-80

40-60

0-0

DISCUSSION Standard Normal Curve

1. Three tests were given to 000 students. Shown below are Simon's scores on each of these tests along with the mean and standard deviation in each test

a) Convert each of Simons test scores to standard scores

b) On which test did Simon score highest? On which lowest?

c) Simons score in arithmetic was surpassed by how many students?

d) What assumption must be made in order to answer the preceding question?

. Use the table for Areas Under the Normal Curve to complete the following questions

Given a normal distribution based on 1000 cases with a of 50 and SD of 10, find

a) the proportion of the curve and the number of cases between the mean and the following scores

70

45

b) the proportion of the curve and the number of cases above the following scores

70

45

c) the proportion of the curve and the number of cases between the following scores

60?70

5?60

A journal article, single author

Amir, Y. (16). Contact hypothesis in ethnic relations. Psychological Bulletin, 71, 1-4.

Weinstein, N. D. (180). Unrealistic optimism about future life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,, 806-80.

. A journal article, single author, title including a colon

Anastasi, A. (185). Some emerging trends in psychological measurement A fifty-year perspective. Applied Psychological Measurement,, 11-18.

. Journal articles, multiple authors

MacLeod, C., Rutherford, E., Campbell, L., Ebsworthy, G., & Holker, L. (00). Selective attention and emotional vulnerability Assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 107-1.

Ross, L., Amabile, T. M., & Steinmetz, J. L. (177). Social roles, social controls, and social perception processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 5, 485-44.

Johnson, M. K., & Raye, C. L. (181). Reality monitoring. Psychological Review, 88, 67-85.

4. A journal article with a title containing a question mark

Deshpande, S. P., Joseph, J., & Viswesvaran, C. (14). Does the use of student samples affect the results of studies in cross-cultural training? A meta-analysis. Psychological Reports, 74, 77-785.

5. A journal article with a title containing a person's name

Collins, B. E. (174). Four components of the Rotter internal-external scale Belief in a difficult world, a just world, a predictable world, and a politically responsive world. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,, 81-1.

6. A journal article with a title containing a place name

Verkuyten, M., Hagendoorn, L., & Masson, K. (16). The ethnic hierarchy among majority and minority youth in The Netherlands. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 6, 1104-1118.

7. A journal article with a title containing both a place and person's name

Lysgaard, S. (155). Adjustment in a foreign country Norwegian Fulbright grantees visiting The United States. International Social Science Bulletin, 7, 45-51.

8. A journal article with a title containing an acronym

Forgas, J. P. (15). Mood and judgment The affect infusion model (AIM). Psychological Bulletin, 117, -66.

. Multiple journal articles by the same author in the same year

Gudjonsson, G. H. (15a). The standard progressive matrices Methodological problems associated with the administration of the 1 adult sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 441-44.

Gudjonsson, G. H. (15b). Raven's norms on the SPM revisited A reply to Raven. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 447.

10. A book, single author, first edition

Dyer, C. (15). Beginning research in psychology. Oxford Blackwell.

Seligman, M. E. P. (175). Helplessness On depression, development and death. San Francisco Freeman.

11. A book, single author, later editions

Cronbach, L. J. (10). Essentials of psychological testing (5th ed.). New York HarperCollins.

Myers, D. G. (1). Social psychology (4th ed.). New York McGraw-Hill.

1. A book, multiple authors, first edition

Huck, S. W., Cormier, W. H., & Bounds, W. G. (174). Reading statistics and research. New York HarperCollins.

1. A book, multiple authors, later edition

Biehler, R. F., & Snowman, J. (1). Psychology applied to teaching (7th ed.). Boston, MA Houghton Mifflin.

14. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

American Psychiatric Association. (14). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC Author.

15. A chapter in an edited book, single author, single editor

Gilbert, D. T. (15). Attribution and interpersonal perception. In A. Tesser (Ed.), Advanced social psychology (pp. -147). New York McGraw-Hill.

16. A chapter in an edited book, single author, multiple editors

Hartmann, D. P. (1). Design, measurement, and analysis Technical issues in developmental research. In M. H. Bornstein & M. E. Lamb (Eds.), Development psychology An advanced textbook (nd ed., pp. 5-154). Hillsdale, NJ Lawence Erlbaum Associates.

17. A chapter in an edited book, multiple authors, first edition

Clore, G. L., Gasper, K., & Garvin, E. (001). Affect as information. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.). Handbook of affect and social cognition (pp. 11-144). Mahwah, NJ Erlbaum.

18. A chapter in an edited book, multiple authors, later editions

Dinges, N. G., & Baldwin, K. D. (16). Intercultural competence A research perspective. D. Landis & R. S. Bhagat (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training (nd ed., pp. 106-1). California Sage.

1. Chapter in an edited multi-volume book.

Fiske, S. T., & Pavelchak, M. A. (186) Category-based versus piecemeal-based affective responses Developments in schema-triggered affect. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 167-0). New York Guildford Press.

0. Paper presented to a conference

Roberts, R. E., Phinney, J. S., Romero, A., & Chen, Y-W. (16). The structure of ethnic identity across ethnic groups. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence, Boston, MA.

References.

American Psychological Association. (001). Publication manual of the American psychological association (5th ed.). Washington, DC Author.

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