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Tuesday, March 16, 2021

Tec

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Cisco 75 (CISCO75) Router Product Features (choose a different model)

The Cisco 700 Series Multiservice Access Routers are a family of modular routers that enable flexible and scalable deployment of new e-business applications for the Full Service branch office. The Cisco 700 Series routers optimize the branch office with high performance routing, integrated low density switching, Security, Voice, IP telephony, Video and Content Networking in a single integrated solution. This unique integrated design enables enterprise customers to incrementally adapt to evolving business needs by enabling important services delivered by Cisco IOS, such as Quality of Service (QoS), IP Multicast, VPN, Firewall, and Intrusion Detection, with the performance required for tomorrows business challenges. The Cisco 700 Multiservice Access Routers are based on the same modular concepts as the Cisco 600 Series but enable dramatically higher levels of performance and service integration for the branch office.The Cisco 75 and Cisco 745 provide on-board LAN/WAN connec...

Key Features

Data Transfer Rate

100 Mbps

Rack Mounting Kit

Optional

Platform

PC

Other Features

Connectivity

Cable

Package Qty.

1 Memory

Installed RAM

18 MB

Installed Flash Memory

MB

Protocols

Data Link Protocol

Ethernet, ATM, ISDN, HSSI, Fast Ethernet, X.5

Switching Protocol

Ethernet

Dimensions

Width

17.1 in.

Depth

14.7 in.

Height

.51 in.

Weight

14.11 lb.

Miscellaneous

Product ID

0107

com superstack Net Builder SI 467 5,7.1 $

The SuperStack II NETBuilder SI platforms deliver today's best overall WAN value with built-in, easy-to-use IP firewalls that provide secure LAN-to-WAN traffic as well as protection from Internet intrusion. Predictable system performance, robust multiprotocol routing, and integrated telecommunications functionality make the SuperStack II NETBuilder SI devices the most cost-effective, complete regional office solution for changing wide area networking needs in a secure environment. The platforms can either be used as a remote office connection or as a central site solution in combination with Com OfficeConnect NETBuilder routers in remote branch offices.

Main

Manufacturer Sku C8567

Brand Com

Product Line SuperStack II NETBuilder

Model SI 567

Interface Type Cable

Data Transfer Rate 100 Mbps

Switching Protocol Frame Relay, X.5, PPP, SMDS

Operating System Compatibility PC

BizRate Product ID 5055

Also Known As c8567

Networking

Networking Type Router

Networking Connection Type Ethernet (10/100Base-T), Fast Ethernet (100Base-T), SDLC, Ethertalk

Network Transport Protocol SNA, AppleTalk, DECnet, TCP/IP, IPX/SPX

Cisco 1000 Series Routers

Product Overview

For service providers who face the challenge of building IP networks to meet customer demands while increasing profitability, the Cisco 1000 Series offers the only portfolio of 10G systems with the capacity, performance, service enablers and operational efficiencies to build the most competitive IP networks.

As the industry`s next generation Internet routing platform of choice, the Cisco 1000 Series is composed of the following key elements

• Chassis options that fit your scaling and real estate requirements.

• Line Cards and other options such as redundant Gigabit Route Processors, Switch Fabric Cards, and Clock Scheduler Cards to deliver the interface diversity, performance and high availability required by today`s networks.

• Cisco IOS to enable the services the Cisco 1000 Series hardware delivers.

• Cisco 1000 Manager to help you deploy, configure and manage Cisco 1000 Series products.

Cisco 1000 Series Chassis

Whether located in the services provider point of presence (POP) or Internet data center (IDC) in the metro, long-haul transit site, or WAN, the Cisco 1000 Series offers configurations that meet current customer needs for scaling IP backbone and edge networks while providing investment protection for future growth and technology development.

To meet the versatility demanded by scalability and investment protection requirements, the Cisco 1000 Series offers six chassis options that range in size (number of slots and rack configuration) and bandwidth capacity. These chassis include two groups- chassis supporting .5 Gbps per slot, and Cisco 1400 Internet Routers supporting 10 Gbps (e.g. OC-1) per slot.

Table 17-1 Chassis supporting .5 Gbps (full duplex) per slot

Cisco 1008 Internet Router 8 Slots

Cisco 101 Internet Router 1 Slots

Cisco 1016 Internet Router 16 Slots1

1. The Cisco 1016 may be field upgraded to a Cisco 1416 via a Switch Fabric Upgrade kit.

Table 17-1 Chassis supporting 10 Gbps (full duplex) per slot

Cisco 1404 Internet Router 4 Slotseighth rack

Cisco 1406 Internet Router 6 Slotsquarter rack

Cisco 1410 Internet Router 10 Slotshalf rack

Cisco 1416 Internet Router 16 Slotsfull rack

With both capacity and size flexibility, service providers can deploy Cisco 1000 Series products in a variety of environments including

• Pop consolidation

• Peering and transit

• Bandwidth aggregation

• Remote POP connectivity

• IDC backbone expansion and aggregation

• Intra-POP connectivity

• High Speed Provider Edge Aggregation

These chassis support the key elements of the Cisco 1000 Series distributed architecture, including an extensive portfolio of Line Cards that deliver the interface technology needed to build networks today.

Cisco 1000 Series Line Cards

The Cisco 1000 Series offers an extensive portfolio of line cards (Table 18-5) supporting ATM, Channelized, Dynamic Packet Transport/Resilient Packet Ring (DPT/RPR), Electrical Interface (DS/E), Gigabit/ Fast Ethernet, and Packet Over SONET (POS) technologies with speeds from DS1 / E1 (64 Kbps) through OC-1/STM-64. These line cards deliver the high performance, guaranteed priority packet delivery and service transparent online-insertion and removal (OIR) required by service providers to build networks that offer high ROI and meet customer demand.

The new Cisco 1000 Series IP Services Engine (ISE) revolutionizes the edge market by combining the power of the Cisco 1000 Series distributed system architecture with revolutionary edge-optimized line card technology to 10 Gbps enable the high-speed service enabled edge. Cisco 1000 Series ISE line cards are now offered in POS and channelized interfaces.

Table 17-14 Cisco 1000 Series Line Card Technologies

Description Specification

Packet over SONET/Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (POS/SDH) POS interfaces on the Cisco 1000 Series enable connections between Cisco next generation Internet routing products via optical interfaces. These interfaces can be circuits provisioned over a SONET/SDH infrastructure or dark fiber (native fiber links) connections or wavelengths of Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM) systems. Line cards range from OC-c/STM-1c to OC-1c/STM-64c

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) ATM interfaces on the Cisco 1000 Series enable connections between Cisco next generation Internet routing and IP+ATM products via ATM networks. Line cards range from OC-/STM-1 to OC-1/STM-4.

Gigabit and Fast Ethernet Optical Gigabit Ethernet (GE) and Fast Ethernet (FE) interfaces on the Cisco 1000 Series are available in 1, and 10 Port GE and 8 Port FE options.

Dynamic Packet Transport/Resilient Packet Ring (DPT/RPR) Dynamic Packet Transport/Resilient Packet Ring (DPT/RPR) is a Spatial Reuse Protocol (SRP) technology, which, drawing on Cisco`s IP+Optical expertise, combines the intelligence of IP routing with the bandwidth efficiencies of optical rings. Designed primarily for metropolitan area networks, DPT/RPR delivers scalable Internet service, reliable IP-aware optical transport, and simplified network operations.

DPT/RPR is the resilient packet ring market leader, deployed in more than 00 customer networks with more than 18,000 ports shipped. DPT/RPR is based on the Spatial Reuse Protocol (SRP), a Cisco-developed MAC-layer protocol for ring-based packet internetworking. Cisco has submitted SRP, which is an open, freely available specification, to the IEEE 80.17 Resilient Packet Ring (RPR) Working Group for consideration as the industry standard.

DPT/RPR interfaces on the Cisco 1000 Series enable connections to other Cisco 1000, 700, and 7500 Internet Routers, as well as the ONS 1510 IP Transport Concentrators. Line cards supported by the Cisco 1000 Series include an OC-1/STM-4, OC-48/STM-16, and OC-1/STM-64 interfaces.

Channelized Channelized interfaces enables the Cisco 1000 Series Internet Router to exchange packets with other routers using high-speed OC-48/STM-64, OC-1/STM-4, OC-/STM-1 that channelize OC-1c/STM-4c down to DS1/E1 connections and take advantage of the multiplexing capability of SONET/ SDH networks. These channelized interfaces allow an ISP or enterprise network designer to connect the Cisco 1000 Series Internet Router directly to ADMs or digital cross-connects.

DS/ E COAX DS and E cards provide IP and MPLS connectivity services over DS/ E co-axial connections in locations where optical services are not available.

For more information, see

Options for Cisco 1000 Series Line Cards/Memory

Cisco IOS

Service Providers are constantly struggling to scale their infrastructure. The adoption of the Internet as the de-facto public data network only increases the drive for additional bandwidth. However, while performance is critical, it is important not to lose sight of the services that customers require networks to provide. The Cisco Internetworking Operating System (IOS) is the most complete end-to-end network operating system, with over fifteen years of tested performance in enterprise and service provider networks. By adopting Cisco IOS in combination with the Cisco 1000 Series, service providers can scale their network backbone and edge networks while delivering highly differentiated services at high performance levels. Deployed in customer networks and known by network engineers worldwide, Cisco IOS is a critical element in building competitive IP networks.

Cisco 1000 Series supports two IOS releases today 1.0S and 1.0ST

• 1.0S Widely deployed on Cisco 1000 700, and 7500Series Internet Routers, this IOS software service provider release is optimized for service provider Functionality. (Note Before general availability of the software, we will ensure the system level testing is performed in large customer networks.)

• 1.0ST Supported on Cisco 1000, 10000, 700, 7500 and 1070 Internet Routers, this Cisco IOS service provider release supports all 1.0S features and adds advanced features such as MPLS (LDP, FRR), MPLS-VPNs, XML interface, IPv6 and High Availability.

Cisco 1000 ManagerElement Management Software

Cisco 1000 Manager meets today`s business requirements for the control and operation of the Cisco 1000 Series Internet Router. Through an intuitive user interface, Cisco 1000 Manager eases and accelerates deployment, enables efficient operation of large network environments, and streamlines the provisioning process. It provides full fault, configuration, accounting, performance, and security (FCAPS) element management for the Cisco 1000 Series, leading to accelerated service velocity, improved network management, and efficient network operations.

Cisco 1000 Manager is based on CEMF, an element management platform for Cisco products. Cisco 1000 Manager and CEMF are part of the Cisco Service Management (CSM) suite, a strategic component of Cisco products and solutions for New World operations. The Cisco Service Management suite provides many of the necessary building blocks for planning, provisioning, monitoring, and billing of packet-based services. CSM products conform to the Cisco Internet Operations Support System (OSS) reference architecture, enabling independent-software-vendor (ISV) application programmers and system integrators to take advantage of the applications as part of an overall service-provider OSS implementation project.

CEMF provides consistency across a common user interface, a powerful event management system, an automap building and discovery function, and a common data management repository for several Cisco element managers. CEMF also provides a robust foundation and integration toolkit through CORBA interfaces to the element management modules for customer and partner OSS applications.

Cisco 1000 Manager delivers a range of provisioning, configuration, fault isolation/analysis, inventory, and capacity management tools for Cisco 1000 Series Internet Routers. Cisco 1000 Series customers benefit from lower Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) through the manageability built into Cisco 1000 Series hardware, the services provided by CEMF, and the specific element management support provided by Cisco 1000 Manager.

Cisco 1000 Manager .1 replaces Cisco GSR Manager and introduces new features including support for Cisco 1400 products and 10 Gbps POS Line Cards, and improved event processing and handling.

Key Features and Benefits

Cisco 1000 Series Key Features and Benefits

With over 0,000 systems deployed globally, the Cisco 1000 Series is industry`s premier Internet routing platform based on a unique, modular distributed system architecture that offers configuration versatility and the industry`s only 10G portfolio, highest backbone and edge performance, only guaranteed priority packet delivery, and proven investment protection.

Configuration versatility

• Available in .5 and 10 Gbps (full duplex) per slot options including the largest selection of 10 Gbps networking solutions available on the market today

• Switching capacities ranging from 40 to 0 Gbps to deliver throughput required by high bandwidth applications

• Rack configurations ranging from eight to one per rack to meet real estate and cost control requirements Low power consumption design for operational efficiency

• An extensive portfolio of line cards that are forward compatible across chassis to deliver multiple interface technologies including POS/SDH, DPT, ATM, Gigabit/Fast Ethernet, and Channelized

Uncompromising 10G Performance

• The only complete solution for small to large POPsbackbone or edge. Cisco 1400 Internet Routers are available in eight, four, two or one per rack configuration allowing service providers to select the chassis that meets and scales with application requirements.

• The only platforms supporting backbone- or edge-optimized line cards in the same chassis. Forward compatibility and flexibility enable investment protection and configuration versatility within the same chassiswhether deployed new 10 Gbps interfaces, edge-optimized Cisco 1000 Series ISE line cards, or migrating existing investments.

• The only platforms that maximize the value of line-rate edge applications with 10G uplinks. By deploying Cisco 1000 Series ISE line cards in Cisco 1400 Internet Routers, service providers benefit from line cards optimized for edge applications, while removing the bandwidth bottleneck with full 10 Gbps uplinks and cost-effective VSR intra-POP connections.

• The industry`s only complete IP QoS implementation that uniquely enables premium real-time services such as VoIP and video. The Cisco 1000 Series distributed architecture and class of service features such as priority based congestion control (WRED) and dedicated low latency queuing (MDRR), and virtual output queuing (VoQ) technology prevent head of line blocking (HOL) and maintain packet and cell sequence integrity under all conditions

Investment Protection and Operational Efficiency

• Only vendor who delivers simple, low-cost field upgrades to higher switching capacities

• Forward compatibility of Cisco 1000 Series Line Cards guarantees that investments in existing interfaces are protected with new chassis deployments and purchases. Latest Cisco 1000 Series ISE Line Cards are compatible in all Cisco 1000 Series chassis

• High availability features such as eliminating single points of failure by distributing components (e.g. forwarding engines and memory) across line cards helps maintain system performance and prevents service interruption.

• Non-service impacting online insertion and removal (OIR) of components and front accessibility reduces downtime and simplifies maintenance.

• OSS tools such as the integrated element manager, Cisco 1000 Manager, decrease deployment time and cost of ownership

• Designed for NEBS compliance to meet service provider carrier-class requirements

Cisco 1000 Series Distributed Architecture

When evaluating an investment in a routing platform, the architecture of the platform determines the foundation of the network. The industry-leading features and benefits of the industry`s top Internet routing platform are enabled through its superior, distributed and modular architecture.

System Level

The Cisco 1000 Series is based on a high speed distributed routing architecture combined with a state-of-the-art switching core that delivers Layer routing at gigabit speeds.

The Cisco 1000 Series is optimized for performing routing and packet forwarding functions to transport IP datagrams across a network. The routing function is performed in the Gigabit Route Processors (GRP) which are responsible for running the routing protocols and building the routing tables from the network topology. This information is then used to build the forwarding tables distributed to the line cards. In addition, the GRP is also responsible for system control and administrative functions.

The packet forwarding functions are performed by each of the line cards (LC). A copy of the forwarding tables computed by the GRP is distributed to each of the line cards in the system. Each line card performs independent lookup of a destination address for each datagram received on a local copy of the forwarding table and the datagram is switched across a crossbar switch fabric to the destination line card.

All line cards are installed from the front of the chassis and plug into a passive backplane. This backplane contains serial lines that interconnect all of the line cards to the switch fabric cards as well as other connections for power and maintenance functions. Each .5 Gbps chassis slot has 4 operational serial line connections (1.5 Gbps), one to each of the switch fabric cards (see below) to provide a total capacity of 5 Gbps per slot (.5 Gbps full duplex). The 10 Gbps chassis utilizes 4 sets of 4 serial line connections in each slot, one set to each of the switch fabric cards, providing each slot with a switching capacity of 0 Gbps (10 Gbps full duplex).

Component Level

• Gigabit Route Processor

The Gigabit Route Processor (GRP) is a high performance engine that provides the routing intelligence for the Cisco 1000 Series. It is dedicated to determining the network topology and calculating the best path across the network. The GRP has the following hardware characteristics

o 00 MHz R5000 CPU

o 18 MB CPU DRAM default with the option to upgrade to 51 MB

o 51 KB Layer cache

o 51 KB configuration NVRAM

o 8 MB boot Flash

o PCMCIA Type II slots for additional flash storage of IOS software versions, configuration files, etc.

o Ethernet (RJ45 and MII connectors) for Network Management access

o Local Console and modem ports (DB-5 EIA/TIA-c)

The GRP provides the following key functions

o Process Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP) such as OSPF, IS-IS, IGRP, or EIGRP to determine the network topology

o Process External Gateway Protocols (EGP) such as BGP-4

o Create and maintain the routing table (up to 1 million route entries)

o Distribute and update Cisco Express Forwarding (CEF) tables on the line cards and maintain copies of each line card`s CEF tables for card initialization

o General maintenance functions such as diagnostics, console support and line card monitoring

o In-band management through SNMP MIBs, Telnet, TFTP and Cisco 1000 Manager.

• Switch Fabric

At the heart of the Cisco 1000 Series is a multi-gigabit crossbar switch fabric that is optimized to provide high capacity switching at gigabit rates. The crossbar switch enables high performance for two reasons connections from the line cards to a centralized fabric are point-to-point links that can operate at very high speeds; multiple bus transactions can be supported simultaneously increasing the aggregate bandwidth of the system. A Cisco 1000 Series switching fabric must be configured to full fabric (40 Gbps for 1008 and 1404, 60 Gbps for 101, 80 Gbps for 1016, 10 Gbps for 1406, 00 Gbps for 1410, and 0 Gbps for 1416) in order to support all the current line cards. Please note that the number of switch fabric cards (SFCs) needed for a full fabric set will differ according to each chassis.

The switch fabric includes two card types Switch Fabric Cards (SFC) and Clock and Scheduler Cards (CSC). Each Cisco 1000 Series Internet Router must have at least one CSC in the chassis. The CSC handles requests from line cards, issues grants to access the fabric and provides a reference clock to all the cards in the system to synchronize data transfer across the crossbar. The SFC receives the scheduling information and clocking reference from the CSC cards and performs the switching functions.

The Switch Fabric provides the following key functions

o Gigabit speed interconnections between line cards (5 Gbps or 0 Gbps per slot)

o State-of-the-art scheduling algorithm combined with Virtual Output Queues to eliminate head-of-line blocking (HOLB) achieving % efficiency

o Hardware based multicast

o High Availability via redundancy (14 for SFC, 11 for CSC) with loss-less failover and hot-swap capability.

The Cisco 1404 Internet Router introduces a new SFCthe Consolidated Switch Fabric and Alarm Card (CSFAC) that combines an SFC, CSC, and alarm card into a single card, saving on slot real-estate within compact chassis.

• Line Cards

Line cards connect the Cisco 1000 Series to other devices via electrical or optical media. The features and functions of the line cards are interface specific but share common features such as OIR and forward compatibility within the Cisco 1000 Series.

The Cisco 1000 Series IP Services Engine (ISE) introduces a new line card technology and architecture that is designed to help build high-speed edge networks, meeting increasing demand and delivering value-added services without compromising density and line-rate performance.

The micro-coded adaptive network processors in ISE combine the hardware performance of ASICs with the programmable flexibility of software, enabling a broad range of new services with a simple software upgrade instead of a costly hardware replacement. The forwarding engine and adaptive network processors in ISE scale edge performance and functionality beyond the ASIC and memory barriers that limit centralized systems.

• Alarm Card

Cisco 1000 Series Internet Routers can be connected to an external alarm system via the alarm board. When the GRP detects an alarm condition (i.e., link failure, loss of power, or equipment failure), it sends a signal to the alarm board to light the appropriate LED on the front of the chassis. The alarms can be cleared by the push-button on the alarm board, or by software commands.

Specifications

Hardware

Table 17-15 Technical Specifications for the Cisco 1000 Series

Specification Cisco 1008 Cisco 101 Cisco 1016

Cisco 1416 Cisco 1410 Cisco 1406 Cisco 1404

Switching Capacity 40 Gbps 60 Gbps 80 Gbps

0 Gbps 00 Gbps 10 Gbps 40 Gbps

Capacity per slot

(full duplex) .5 Gbps .5 Gbps .5 Gbps

10 Gbps 10 Gbps 10 Gbps 10 Gbps

Chassis Slots 8 1 16 10 6 4

Min. Cisco IOS version 1.0(5)S

1.0()ST 1.0(5)S

1.0()ST 1.0(8)S

1.0()ST

1.0(15)S

1.0(16)ST 1.0(16)S or ST 1.0(17) S or ST 1.0(1)S or ST

Supported Protocols IPv4, MPLS, Border Gateway Protocol Version 4 (BGPv4), Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) v. .0, Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP), Routing Information Protocol (RIP) v, Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP), Protocol Independent Multicast dense mode/sparse mode (PIM DM/SM)

Management CLI, SNMP, Cisco 1000 Manager

The GRP supports two serial ports (console and AUX connection) and one 10/100 port

Table 17-16 Chassis Compatibility for Cisco 1000 Series Line Cards

Technology Interface Chassis

Cisco 10xx

.5 Gbps Cisco 1400

10 Gbps

Gigabit/ Fast Ethernet 8-Port Fast Ethernet Yes Yes

1-Port Gigabit Ethernet Yes Yes

-Port Gigabit Ethernet Yes Yes

10-Port Gigabit Ethernet Yes

Electrical 6-Port DS Yes Yes

1-Port DS Yes Yes

6-Port E Yes Yes

1-Port E Yes Yes

Packet Over SONET/ Synchronous Digital Hierarchy 4-Port OC-c/ STM-1c POS/SDH Yes Yes

4-port OC-c/STM-1c POS/SDH ISE Yes Yes

8-Port OC-c/ STM-1c POS/SDH Yes Yes

8-port OC-c/STM-1c POS/SDH ISE Yes Yes

16-Port OC-c/ STM-1c POS/SDH Yes Yes

16-Port OC-c/ STM-1c POS/SDH ISE Yes Yes

1-Port OC-1c/ STM-4c POS/SDH Yes Yes

4-Port OC-1c/ STM-4c POS/SDH Yes Yes

4-port OC-1c/STM-4c POS/SDH ISE Yes Yes

1-Port OC-48c/STM-16c POS/SDH Yes Yes

1-Port OC-48c/STM-16c POS/SDH ISE Yes Yes

4-Port OC-48c/STM-16c POS/SDH Yes

1-Port OC-1c/STM-64c POS/SDH Yes

Asynchronous Transfer Mode 4-Port OC-c/STM-1c ATM Yes Yes

1-Port OC-1c/STM-4c ATM Yes Yes

4-Port OC-1c/STM-4c ATM Yes Yes

Dynamic Packet Transport/Resilient Packet Ring -Port OC-1c/STM-4c DPT Yes Yes

1-Port OC-48c/STM-16c DPT Yes Yes

4- Port OC-48c/STM-16c DPT Yes

1-Port OC1c/STM-64c DPT Yes

Channelized -Port Ch OC-/STM-1(DS1/E1) Yes Yes

6-Port Ch T (T1) Yes Yes

1-Port Ch OC-1/STM-4(OC-/ STM-1) Yes Yes

1-Port Ch OC-1 (DS) Yes Yes

4-Port Ch OC-1/STM-4 (DS/E, OC-c/STM-1c) POS/SDH ISE Yes Yes

1-Port Ch OC-48/STM-16 (DS/E, OC-c/STM-1c,OC-1c/STM-4c) POS/SDH ISE Yes Yes

Table 17-17 Physical and Environmental Specifications for Cisco 1000 Series Chassis

Specification Cisco 1008 Cisco 101 Cisco 1016

Cisco 1416 Cisco 1410 Cisco 1406 Cisco 1404

Vibration Operating 5 to 00 Hz, 0.5 g

(1 oct/min.) Same as 1008 to 500 Hz, 0.5 Grms Same as 1016 Same as 1016 (Sinusoidal) to 500 Hz at 0.15 gpk

(Random) .5 to 00 Hz at 0. Grms

Storage 5 to 500 Hz, 1 g

(1 oct/min.) Same as 1008 to 500 Hz, 1.0 Grms Same as 1016 Same as 1016 (Sinusoidal) 10 to 500 Hz at 0.8 gpk

(Random) .5 to 00 Hz at 1.05 Grms

Acoustic Noise 6 dBa max. Same as 1008 70 dBa max. Same as 1016 Same as 1016 70 dBa max.

Temperature Operating to 104°F (0 to 40°C) Same as 1008 Same as 1008 Same as 1008 Same as 1008 to 104°F (0 to 40°C)

Storage -4 to 14°F (-0 to 65°C) Same as 1008 Same as 1008 Same as 1008 Same as 1008 -40 to 158°F (-40 to 70°C)

Humidity

(non-condensing) Operating 10 to 0% Same as 1008 Same as 1008 Same as 1008 Same as 1008 5 to 0%

Storage 5 to 5% Same as 1008 Same as 1008 Same as 1008 Same as 1008 50 to %

Altitude Operating 0-10,000 ft (0-000 m) Same as 1008 0-10,000 ft (0-000 m) Same as 1016 Same as 1016 0-14,000 ft (0-467 m)

Storage 0-0,000 ft (0-140 m) Same as 1008 0-0,000 ft (0-144 m) Same as 1016 Same as 1016 0-16,000 ft (0-4877 m)

Shock Operating 5-500 Hz 0.5G (0.1 oct/min.) Same as 1008 (half sine) 1 in./sec (0.5 m/sec) Same as 1016 Same as 1016 (Halfsine) 5G, 11ms

Storage (trapezoidal) 5-100 Hz 1.0G

(0.1 oct/min.)

100-500 Hz 1.0G (0. oct/min.)

500-1000 Hz 1.5G

(0. oct/min.) Same as 1008 (trapezoidal) 0G,

5 in./sec

(1. m/sec) Same as 1016 Same as 1016 (Halfsine) 15G, 11ms

Dimensions (H x W x D) Unit 4.85 x 17.4 x 1. in.

(6.1 x 44. x 5.8 cm) 56.0 x 17. x 1.0 in.

(14. x 4. x 5. cm) 7.5 x 18.75 x 4.0 in.

(184. x 47.6 x 61.0 cm)

Includes power, front cover, rack mount flanges, and cable-management system 7.5 x 1.0 x 4.0 in.

(5.5 x 48.6 x 61.0 cm)

Includes cable-management system and front cover 18.5 x 18. x 8 in.

(47.0 x 48.0 x 71.1 cm)

Includes rack-mount flanges, power supply pullouts, blower handles system) 8.75 x17.8 x 7.5 in.

(. x 44.15 x 6.85 cm)

Shipping .5 x 5.0 x .5 in.

(0. x 6.5 x 100. cm) 67.0 x 4.88 x . in.

(170. x 6. x 100 cm) 8 x 4 x 40 in.

(6 x 86. x 101.6 cm)

Weight Unit 187 lb (84. kg) max configuration 80 lb (17.5 kg) max configuration 415 lb (188 kg);

440 lb (0 kg) for 4 AC Configuration max configuration 15 lb (57 kg), chassis only

75 lb (15 kg), chassis fully configured, using all card slots and two AC-input power supplies 140 lb (64 kg);

05 lb (4 kg) with Power Supply and Line Cards 7 lb (.18 kg) Fully configured (without line cards) 10 lb (46.8 kg) Fully configured (with line cards)

Shipping 0 lb (100 kg) 4 lb (.4 kg) 580 lb (6.6 kg);

60 lb (81. kg) for 4 AC configuration

Table 17-18 Power SpecificationsCisco 1000 Series Chassis

Specification Cisco 1008 Cisco 101 Cisco 1016 Cisco 1416 Cisco 1410 Cisco 1406 Cisco 1404

DC Input Voltage (range) -40.5 to -75 VDC -40.5 to -75 VDC -40.5 to -75 VDC -40.5 to -75 VDC -40.5 to -75 VDC -40.5 to -75 VDC

AC Input Voltage (range) 180-64 VAC (47 - 6 Hz) 180-64 VAC (47 - 6 Hz) 180-64 VAC (47 - 6 Hz) 170-64 VAC (47 - 6 Hz) 170-64 VAC (47 - 6 Hz) 85-64 VAC (47 - 6 Hz)

Input Supply Power (total) DC 160 W (1 supply) DC 81 W (1 supply) DC 410 W ( supplies) DC 40 W (1 supply) DC 410 W ( supplies) DC 100W max. (DC input)

AC 1 VA (1 supply) AC 50 VA ( supplies) AC 454 VA ( supplies) AC 71 VA (1 each) AC 454 VA ( supplies) AC 1650 VA max (1 AC input)

Heat Dissipation (total maximum) DC 160W at 5,50 Btu/hr DC 81W at 8,1 Btu/hr DC 410W at 14,7 Btu/hr DC 40W at 8,6 Btu/hr DC 1780W at 6.06 Btu/hr DC 100W at 40 Btu/hr

AC 185W at 6,65 Btu/hr AC 801W at ,56 Btu/hr AC 4706W at 16,066 Btu/hr AC 71W at ,58 Btu/hr AC 1650W at 566 Btu/hr AC 100W at 40 Btu/hr

Power Supply Configuration DC 1 min., for N Redundant

AC 1 min., for N Redundant DC 1 min., for N Redundant

AC min., for N+1 Redundant DC 4 req for N Redundant

AC req for N+1 Redundant

AC 4 req for N Redundant DC req for N Redundant

AC req for N Redundant DC 1 min., for N Redundant

AC 1 min., for N Redundant DC 1 min., for N Redundant

AC 1 min., for N Redundant

Notes Power calculations are maximum to support seven 1 port OC-48 line cards

AC input power is limited to 1100VA before power supply upgrade. Power calculations are maximum to support eleven 1 port OC-48 line cards Power calculations are maximum to support fifteen 1 port OC-48 cards for 1016; and fifteen 1 port OC-1c/STM-64c line cards for 1416 Power calculations are maximum to support eight 1 port OC1c/STM-64c line cards Power calculations are maximum to support five 1 port OC-1c/STM-64c line cards Power calculations are maximum to support three 1 port OC-1 and GRP

________________________________________

Note Please check respective product datasheets for specifications on line cards and information on approvals and compliance.

________________________________________

Software

Table 17-1 Cisco 1000 Manager .1 Specifications/Requirements

Description Specification

Compatibility Compatible with CEMF .1

Supported on Sun hardware running Solaris operating environment .6

Server System Requirements Cisco 1000 Manager may be deployed in different configurations, including a single hardware system or a multi-site distributed management system.

Use Sun Ultra 60 or enterprise-class server such as Sun Enterprise 450, configured as follows

17 in. color monitor

Six -GB 10,000-rpm disks on three Ultra SCSI controllers

1-GB memory per CPU (440-MHz processors for large scale)

-GB swap

4-bit Sun graphics card

Miscellaneous resources CD-ROM drive, DAT tape backup

Note For large-scale deployments, fault-tolerant options are available (for example, Sun Netra FT1800).

Client System Requirements (optional) Use Sun Ultra 60, configured as follows

17 in. color monitor

Two -GB internal disks

One -GB 10,000-rpm external disk

56-MB memory (minimum)

Two 60-MHz processors

1-GB swap

Operating environment-Common desktop environment (CDE)

Supported Cisco 1000 Series Chassis Cisco 1008, 101, 1016, 1406, 1410, 1416 and 1404

Supported Cisco 1000 Series Line Cards Gigabit/ Fast Ethernet

• 8-Port Fast Ethernet

• 1-Port Gigabit Ethernet

• -Port Gigabit Ethernet

• 10-Port Gigabit Ethernet

Electrical

• 6-Port DS

• 1-Port DS

• 6-Port E

• 1-Port E

Packet Over SONET/ Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

• 4-Port OC-c/ STM-1c POS/SDH

• 8-Port OC-c/ STM-1c POS/SDH

• 16-Port OC-c/ STM-1c POS/SDH

• 1-Port OC-1c/ STM-4c POS/SDH

• 4-Port OC-1c/ STM-4c POS/SDH

• 1-Port OC-48c/STM-16c POS/SDH

• 4-Port OC-48c/STM-16c POS/SDH

• 1-Port OC-1c/STM-64c POS/SDH

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

• 4-Port OC-c/STM-1c ATM

• 1-Port OC-1c/STM-4c ATM

• 4-Port OC-1c/STM-4c ATM

Dynamic Packet Transport/Resilient Packet Ring

• -Port OC-1c/STM-4c DPT

• 1-Port OC-48c/STM-4c DPT

• 4-Port OC-48c/STM-16c DPT

• 1-Port OC-1c/STM64c DPT

Ordering Information

Product Part Numbers

All part descriptions and part numbers for Cisco products can be accessed using the online Cisco Pricing Tool at

http//www.cisco.com/cgi-bin/order/pricing_root.pl

Configuration Worksheets

This section provides helpful information for planning your Cisco 1000 Series system configuration.

Slot configuration

The last two digits of the Cisco 1000 Series chassis product name indicate the number of slots in the system. For example, a Cisco 1008 has eight slots, and a Cisco 1416 has 16 slots. A minimum of one slot must be used for a GRP. May be used for line cards, including SFCs. Please check specifics for each chassis on redundancy options and SFC requirements. Cisco 1000 Series chassis slots are universal and can be populated with any combination of GRPs and line cards. The following table shows one possible configuration

Table 17-10 Slot Guidelines for the Cisco 1008, Cisco 101, and Cisco 1016/1416

Slot Number Cisco 1008 Cisco 101 Cisco 1016/1416

0 GRP GRP GRP

1 Redundant GRP (if required) or line card Line card Redundant GRP (if required) or line card

- Line card Line card Line card

4-7 Line card Line card Line card

8-11 N/A Redundant GRP (if required) for slot 11 or Line card Line card

1-15 N/A N/A Line card

Table 17-11 Slot Guidelines for the Cisco 1410

Slot Number Cisco 1410

0 GRP

1-8 Line card

Redundant GRP or Line card

10-15 N/A

Table 17-1 Slot Guidelines for the Cisco 1406

Slot Number Cisco 1406

0 GRP

1-4 Line card

Redundant GRP or Line card

N/A

Table 17-1 Slot Guidelines for the Cisco 1404

Slot Number Cisco 1404

0 GRP

1-5 Line card

Redundant GRP or Line card

N/A

Line Card and GRP Memory Options

There are two configurable memory types on the GRP

• Flash (PCMCIA)

• DRAM used to hold system software, routing tables, and other data

Default GRP memory is 0 MB PCMCIA Flash, and 18 MB DRAM

There are two configurable memory types on each of the Cisco 1000 Series line cards

• Packet memory (buffers)

Default packet memory

18 MB (64 MB Tx, 64 MB Rx) for Engine 0, 56 MB (18 MB Tx/18 MB Rx) for Engine 1 and, and 51 MB for ISE (formerly known as Engine )

51 MB (56 MB Tx, 56 MB Rx) for Engine 4

• Route table memory

Default route table memory

18 MB for line cards with .5 Gbps packet forwarding engines (Engine 0, 1, ), expandable to 56 MB

56 MB for line cards with ISE and 10 Gbps packet forwarding engines (Engine 4)

Redundancy

At the heart of the Cisco 1000 Series is a multi-gigabit crossbar switching fabric that provides synchronized gigabit-speed interconnections for all of the other cards in the system. The switching fabric for the Cisco .5 Gbps chassis (1016, 101 and 1008) consists of up to four switching cards, supplemented by a fifth card that provides 14 or 11 redundancy. The .5 Gbps switching cards are not interchangeable with the 10Gbps switch fabric (1404/1406/1410/1416).

________________________________________

Note Redundancy in key system components (processors, switch fabric, line cards, cooling and power) minimizes possible network disruption if a failure occurs. The following table shows the valid redundancy options for each Cisco 1000 Series product.

________________________________________

Table 17-14 Redundancy Matrix for Cisco 1000

System Element Cisco 1008/101/1406/1404/1410/1016/1416

Switch cards Yes1

GRP Yes

Line cards (APS) Yes

Fans Yes

Power supplies Yes

1. Does not include the Cisco 1404 CSFAC.

Software

Cisco IOS

The system software is based on IOS Version 1.0S or ST. A software license is required for each Cisco 1000 Series Internet Router. The license must accompany each system and is tied to the Cisco 1000 chassis serial number. If you are ordering only Cisco 1000 spare products, you do not need to order a software license.

Cisco 1000 Manager

Cisco 1000 Manager (C1KM) requires licensing for each management server (A) and managed node (B).

A. Management server licensing

The C1KM application (the management server) is available as an orderable media kit package (EMS-1k-.1-KIT) that contains a CD and release notes. This Cisco 1000 Manager package includes the Cisco Element Management Framework (CEMF) .1 and CEMF .1 User Guide and Installation Documentation set. The Cisco 1000 Manager User Guide and Installation Documentation set is available on Cisco Connection Online (CCO).

CEMF .1 patch 4 is available from CCO-http//www.cisco.com/pcgi-bin/tablebuild.pl/cemf

CEMF .1 logical licensing is enabled and controlled according to the Host name and Host Id. of the Sun hardware it is installed on as a management server. Upon initial installation, the software runs on a temporary0 day license. Customers ordering EMS-1k-.1-KIT with managed node licenses can download permanent CEMF licenses via CCO using a Product Authorization Key (PAK) shipped with the C1KM package.

http//cco.cisco.com/public/sw-center/sw-registration.shtml

C1KM .1 supports up to 50 fully populated Cisco 1000 Series Internet Routers with full performance logging enabled, or up to 100 routers with performance logging enabled selectively (e.g. on customer and key network interfaces).

Up to 10 concurrent users can be supported by installing at least one client system to support user sessions (the client software required is included in EMS-1k-.1-KIT.)

Customers ordering EMS-1k-.1-KIT-D may evaluate C1KM for 0 days free of charge.

B. Managed node licensing

Cisco 1000 Manager .1 (C1kM .1) also requires a license purchase per managed Cisco 1000 node (chassis). Customers should order a management license (or upgrade) for each new and existing Cisco 1000Series Internet Router to be managed using C1kM (i.e. see product number table for a combination of both EMS-1k-MGT-LIC and EMS-1k-MGT-LIC= as appropriate).

Service and Support

TAC Service and Support contracts are available, both with and without major upgrades. The Service and Support with Upgrades contract is highly recommended.

Upgrades

Customers without service contracts need to purchase upgrade licenses for both the C1KM .1 application (media kit) and existing Cisco 1000 series chassis licenses. You must upgrade both the console and the nodes that you intend to manage.

Customers with service contracts will only receive upgrade support (for major or minor releases of C1KM) based on which component they have purchased a contract for (application and node licensing), and what level of contract they have purchased (with or without upgrade). A contract with upgrade support receives all major and minor upgrades. Without upgrade support, contract holders will receive minor upgrades free-of-charge. All service contract customers may use the product upgrade tool to obtain upgrades http//www.cisco.com/upgrade.

Each application upgrade (media kit) includes both C1KM and CEMF upgrade software. Detailed instructions on upgrading are provided in the C1KM .1 release notes.

Customers without a service contract must purchase minor upgrades for C1KM .1 media kit and management licenses

(EMS-1K-MNUPG-KIT and EMS-1k-MNUPG-LIC).

Detailed upgrade steps are provided in the C1KM .1 release notes.

Cisco 1000 Series Internet Router ordering instructions

Use the following steps to configure an order for a Cisco 1000 Series Internet Router

• Select the base system; e.g. GSR 1/60 for the 60 Gbps Cisco 101 Internet Router, or GSR 8/40 for the 40 Gbps Cisco 1008 Internet Router.

• Add to the order

o Base system software license

o Type of power supply (AC/DC) [DC power is the default]no choice on the Cisco 1000 series 16/80two bundles

o Correct power cord (AC only)

o Increased GRP memory (optional)

• Add needed line cards and increase line card packet buffer and DRAM memory (optional)

• Add redundant/spare components

o Switch cards

o GRP (two max.)

o Power supplies

________________________________________

Note All references to GSR refer to Cisco 1000 Series products.

________________________________________

Table 17-15 Sample Configurations for Cisco 1008

Description Product Number

Cisco 1008, 40 Gbps; 1 GRP, 1 CSC, SFCs, 1 DC GSR 8/40

56 MB GRP and LC program/route memory ( x 18 MB) MEM-GRP/LC-56

Cisco 1008 redundant DC supplies ( DC supplies) PWR-GSR8-DC/

IP IOS SFGSR-11..

Cisco 1008 scheduler/fabric/alarm GSR8-CSC/ALRM=

1-port OC-48c/STM16 SONET/SDH Short Reach 110nm with SC connector OC48E/POS-SR-SC

56 MB GRP and LC program/route memory ( x 18 MB)default MEM-GRP/LC-56

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The Oxbow Incident

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The incident occurred in a valley that resembled the shape of an ox-bow. Just as the ox-bow lay around an animal's throat, so does the noose around the necks of three innocent men. The message clearly lies in the letter of a dead man, "Man just can't mutually take the law into his own hands, and hang people without hurting everybody in the world. Cause then he's not just breaking one law, but all laws. Law's a lot more that a word you put in a book or judges, lawyers, and sheriffs you hire to carry them out. It's everything people ever found out about justice and what's right and wrong. It's the very conscience of humanity. There can't be any such thing as civilization unless people have a conscience, because if people touch God anywhere, where is it except in their conscience. And what is anybody's conscience except a little piece of every man's conscience that ever lived…

Review

Two men (Art and Gil) find themselves in Bridger Wells, a small frontier town that they have visited before. They headed straight to Canby's saloon where they made small talk with the barkeep. They were told of some recent problems with cattle rustlers in the area. Just then a foreman from a local ranch busted through the door screaming that they had killed his boss and that they'd be needed to form a posse to track down these murderers.

The townsmen scurried to their horses, almost as if they were excited. They ignored the town's preacher who asked them to wait for a sheriff and rode off with the attitude of an "Eye for an eye". Shortly after, the men began to argue over what would be the punishment of the murderers. Some chose law and other's chose lawlessness. The ride continued with snide remarks towards one another's opinion, and eventually grew quiet.

At one a.m. the posse surrounded three men around a campfire. The posse, now 8 strong, quickly tied the hands of the men, and began accusing them of murdering Drew Kinkaid, a local rancher. Donald Martin, who claimed to be the boss of the three, explains where he's from and what they are doing. This was buying 50 head of cattle from Mr. Kinkaid to start a new life for him and his family, on their just bought ranch nearby.

When, the riled up, Major Tetley asked Martin to produce a bill of sale. He doesn't have one. Major Tetley turned to one of Kinkaid's cowhands and asked if he ever knew Kinkaid to do business without writing a receipt. The cowhand replied "nope". That was enough for some of the group to assume Martin's guilt.

The three men repeatedly announced their innocence, and yet, they were continuously interrogated by a group of men who already had their minds made up. Although there were a few who spoke up for the law to be carried out, they were the minority, and the three men were hanged from a tree. But not before Martin could write a letter to his wife and children.

As the posse rode back to Bridger's Well they came upon some men riding towards them, one with a bandage on his head, the other wearing a badge. Here they were the sheriff, the judge, and Mr. Drew Kinkaid? Yes, and alive. When the judge found out what had happened, he accused Major Tetley of murder. Kinkaid concurred that he had sold the cattle to a new, young man with a family, and then they knew. They had hanged three innocent men.

Art reads the dead man's letter to the rest of the posse. Which stated he felt sorry for these men for they know not what they do. Later Art rides off to help to care for Martin's widow and their two children.

Leo Frank

Leo Frank, accused of the murder of a young Irish girl in Atlanta, was also at the hands of an angry mob and though he was tried in court of law, he was not entitled to all aspects of due process. There were similarities in that people believed in hearsay, also being considered an outsider caused much prejudice, and he, too, hung from a tree. Some of the differences were that he was allowed an attorney and witnesses on his behalf.

Emmett Till

Emmett Till, a young northern black boy murdered for saying "Bye baby" to a white southern girl did not receive due process as was the case of the accused in the book. The Till murder resembled The Oxbow Incident because prejudice played a part, just as with the Mexican who worked for Martin in the book, and because his guilt was also partially based on hearsay. The two differed in that Emmett's murderers actually went to trial (though found not guilty), and that Emmett's death would lead the way to change how American's (especially northern blacks) view due process of the law today. He sometimes is referred to as the "sacrificial lamb of the civil rights movement".

Due Process

Requiring that no person be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law nor be denied equal protection under these laws. This involves the accused to have proper representation and to be tried in front of a jury made up of his/her peers.

Conflict - Martin, Hardwick, and Martinez were not allowed to go to Kinkaid's ranch to prove they bought the cattle, If they had been they would have found the truth.

Hearsay

It is rumor, though sometimes allowed as evidence when concerning something pertinent to the case that was said out of the courtroom. This is given during trial to prove the truth.

Consistent When Green, the cowhand, said that Drew Kinkaid never sold cattle without a bill of sale it was taken as the truth, though it was actually hearsay.

Presumption of Innocence

All persons are innocent until proven guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.

Conflict - Major Tetley would not accept the innocent pleas of the three men. He was not hearing what Martin had to say because he was a stranger to the town. Tetley automatically discriminated against the Mex, Jaun Martinez, after listening to Bartlett say he was a gambler wanted for murder (unfounded) and finally he coerced Hardwick, an old feeble minded man, into telling him a story that wasn't true and that the Mexican killed Kinkaid all because he was bent on getting what he wanted, not the truth.

Sixth Amendment

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused has a right to a speedy trial, by an impartial jury, to be confronted by the witness against him, to obtain witnesses in his favor, and to have council in his defense.

Conflict - The three men were not offered any of these liberties.

Escobedo vs. Illinois

The defendant has a right to an attorney if being arrested for a crime.

Conflict - The posse never really told Martin that Kinkaid was dead until after he asked them to go ask Kinkaid about selling him the 50 head of cattle. Martin was never appointed anyone to speak on his behalf legally.

Miranda vs. Arizona

Court said that all defendants have a right to an attorney, even if the state has to provide one and that anyone arrested has to be informed of the right to remain silent and to have an attorney present upon questioning.

Conflict If the Ox Bow three could have had the option to remain silent until given an attorney (though not likely to have happened) their words could not have been twisted or used against them, and if the feeble minded, Hardwick at the Ox Bow would have had a lawyer he could not have been coerced by the Major to make a confession.

Death Wish

The plot of Death Wish involved a victim taking justice into his own hands while the storyline in The Ox Bow Incident focused on a group of men taking law into theirs. The central messages in both are very similar. When there is a form of vigilantism it actually is the origin of another crime. It is easy to rationalize violence man against man. It is not so easy to find the exact nature of the prejudice and fight it. Especially, when such men defend values from a position of privilege. Both of these situations shared individuals who thought of themselves as morally superior. They both needed to find balance between thought and action.

Without our Constitution and its Amendments we would live in an unjust, unruly, and hostile society. These laws took great minds much time to write and benefit the welfare of all people. I for would not want to live in a nation without them.

Historical Metaphor

Yes, when this book was written I'm sure the author was aware of the swelling race problem in America. There were over 5000 thousand African Americans lynched in the United States from 180-160. This book would have had to force a reader to deal with their beliefs regarding hangings and due process without it being in a black verses white context.

Review

Leo Frank

Emmett Till

Due Process

Conflict - Martin, Hardwick, and Martinez were not allowed to go to Kinkaid's ranch to prove they bought the cattle, If they had been they would have found the truth.

Hearsay

It is rumor, though sometimes allowed as evidence when concerning something pertinent to the case that was said out of the courtroom. This is given during trial to prove the truth.

Consistent When Green, the cowhand, said that Drew Kinkaid never sold cattle without a bill of sale it was taken as the truth, though it was actually hearsay.

Presumption of Innocence

All persons are innocent until proven guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.

Sixth Amendment

Conflict - The three men were not offered any of these liberties.

Escobedo vs. Illinois

The defendant has a right to an attorney if being arrested for a crime.

Miranda vs. Arizona

Death Wish

Historical Metaphor

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Thursday, March 11, 2021

Dell Consolidated

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Annual Meeting & Presentation

Abstract

Dell is a major computer manufacturer and supplier in today's computer industry. While much competition exists in the market for computers and accessories Dell has proven that they are a market leader. Dell employs approximately 41,800 employees around the world and produced revenue totaling $8. billion for the last four quarters. Dell markets its products to large corporate, government, healthcare and education customers, small-to-medium businesses and individuals. Consumers are able to call or go online and custom build a computer based on their specific needs. The customer support provided is excellent and customers prefer Dell because of that support. Additionally, Dell offers free upgrades, which include CD burners and printers. Dell's goal is to provide its customers with quality, reasonably priced products and services.

In this paper, we will identify the market structure and the competition that exists for Dell products. We will describe the process of distributing the products to the market and the production inputs and their significance to the delivery of the products. We will analyze a strategy of lowering prices in an effort to maximize profit and increase market share. We will also describe the concept of price elasticity and the short-run and long run consequences of lowering prices. Along with a strategy of lowering prices, there will be a competitive reaction to keep up with Dell's strategy. Macroeconomic forecasted events will have an effect on Dell's products. This paper will assess how Dell currently performs in the economy and will describe two strategies which we feel will make Dell an even more profitable company.

Competition

The organization that Learning Team B has chosen to research during this course is Dell Computers ("Dell"). Headquartered in Round Rock, Texas, Dell is a premier provider of products and services required for customers worldwide to build their information-technology and Internet infrastructures. Dells climb to market leadership is the result of a persistent focus on delivering the best possible customer experience by directly selling standards-based products and services. The specific product we will be focusing on will be the laptop computer Dell produces. Both corporate computer users that may travel extensively and students who need mobility are using laptop computers more actively on a daily basis to make it easier to achieve their ultimate goals.

Even though Dell is a market leader in the computer industry and they have developed a reputation for offering superior customer service to its customers, this particular market has some heavy competition from some other leaders in the industry. Companies such as IBM, Hewlett-Packard, Gateway, Sony and Toshiba are all striving to either keep or gain a greater market share of the laptop industry.

Many of Dell's competitors rely heavily on sales in retail outlets as a source of revenue. Competitors such as IBM, Hewlett-Packard, Sony and Toshiba offer very little opportunity for potential customers to customize their laptop computers for their specific needs. Dell and Gateway have been the most aggressive forces in the industry in allowing potential customers to design customized systems to the specifications of the buyer. Dell customers now have the luxury of designing a system they need rather than buying systems that do not have all the components needed or systems that may have more components than needed thereby only adding to the price of the unit.

Dell believes the most efficient path to the customer is through a direct relationship. Direct customer relationships provide a constant flow of information about customers' plans and requirements and enable Dell to continually refine its product offerings. Further, the direct model eliminates the need to support an extensive network of wholesale and retail dealers. As a result, Dell reduces customers' prices by avoiding expenditures associated with the retail channel, such as higher inventory carrying costs, obsolescence associated with technology products, and retail mark-ups.

Customers can purchase custom-built products and custom-tailored services. The direct model allows customers to purchase custom-built products and custom-tailored services. Dell believes this is the most effective business model for providing solutions that truly address customer needs. Further, Dell's flexible, build-to-order manufacturing process enables them to achieve faster inventory turnover and reduced inventory levels. This allows Dell to rapidly incorporate new technologies and components into its product offerings and to rapidly pass component cost savings directly to its customers.

Dell has been able to position and market itself in such a way that its products and services appeal to everyone from large corporate customers to individual laptop owners with a variety of needs and wants. This marketing strategy has given Dell the ability to offer new technology on each new Dell computer model and ensure that no loss of market share is seen because Dell products do not offer what is viewed to be important by the potential purchasers of laptop computers.

Dell offers two types of laptops Inspiron and Latitude. These two laptops integrate with other Dell products easier than most brands. Dell's laptops have more features that are graphic, movie feature, games, video cards, and other features. The Inspiron laptop is better suited for home users while the Latitude laptop is a business laptop, which they made it to be smaller and more powerful. Dell offers both of these laptops online and they can be custom designed by the purchaser.

There are certain factors that could affect Dell's business and prospects. The first of these is armed hostilities, terrorism or public health issues, whether in the U.S. or abroad, could cause damage or disruption to Dell, its suppliers or customers, or could create political or economic instability, any of which could have a material adverse effect on Dell's business. Although it is impossible to predict the consequences of any such events, the aforementioned events could result in a decrease in demand for Dell's products, make it difficult or impossible for Dell to deliver products or for its suppliers to deliver components and could create delays and inefficiencies in Dell's supply chain.

Another area that could affect Dell relates to their sales outside the U.S., which accounted for approximately 4% of their net revenue in fiscal 00. Dell's future growth rates and success are dependent on continued growth and success in international markets. The success and profitability of Dell's international operations are subject to numerous risks and uncertainties, including local economic and labor conditions, political instability, unexpected changes in the regulatory environment, trade protection measures, tax laws (including U.S. taxes on foreign operations) and foreign currency exchange rates, any of which could potentially adversely affect Dell's operations. Further, as Dell generates cash flow in non-U.S. jurisdictions, Dell may experience difficulty transferring such funds to the U.S. in a tax efficient manner.

A final area that could influence Dell is a failure to effectively manage a product transition. Continuous improvements in technology, result in the frequent introduction of new products, short product life cycles and continual improvement in product price/performance characteristics and these characterize the technology industry. Product transitions present some of the greatest challenges for execution and risks for any technology company. A negative effect will occur on if Dell is unable to effectively manage a product transition or its business and results of operations. In addition, continuing technological advancement, which is a significant driver of customer demand, is largely beyond Dell's control.

Dell Computers is a leader in the computer industry and is capable of offering its products and services at low prices while still maintaining the technological integrity of its systems. Dell also has developed a distinct reputation for high levels of customer service. You can see this high level of quality service before the purchase, as representatives are willing to spend as much time needed with potential customers to design the best system for their specific needs and after the purchase with technical support at a minimal cost around the clock. These factors have enabled Dell to gain a large amount of market share and see continued growth in the industry.

Profit Analysis

Dell has been approached by a group of stockholders in the company that have suggested that by lowering the price of the Dell Inspiron by 0% the company would be able to experience an increase in overall market share and maximize the product's profitability. We have established a pricing committee to gather data to support the stockholder's beliefs. The committee will utilize break-even analysis and the price elasticity of the Inspiron to calculate the impact that to expect by lowering the price of the system. The committee will also take into consideration the production costs, possible constraints and marginal costs associated with this change. The following report will detail the findings of the pricing committee.

In order to complete a breakeven analysis of Dell's Inspiron laptop computers we felt that we needed to examine the market from 00. First, we examined the price of the Inspiron laptops to determine the current market price and to evaluate the price with a 0% discount. The market price for one of these computers averages $1,500 and with a 0% discount, that reduces the price to $1,00. We pulled the financial data from 00 to determine the amount of the revenue realized from the Inspiron. Approximately 8.% or $8,8 (in millions) of the total revenue of $1,168 (in millions) Dell reported attributable to Inspiron. To determine the expenses credited to the Inspiron we multiplied 8.% by the total amount of expenses of $,7 (in millions) and arrived at $8, (in millions). Finally, we needed to determine the amount of income that the Inspiron provided last year. To make this determination, total revenues for the Inspiron, or $8,8 (in millions), decreased by the amount of expenses attributed to the Inspiron, or $8, (in millions), which gave $506 million total.

Price

$1,500

$1,00

$ 00

$ 600

$ 00

Production

5 million 10 million

Next, we wanted to attribute a portion of the expenses to fixed and variable costs in the short run so we decided that approximately 6% of the total expenses we were the fixed costs and the other 64% could be attributed to the variable costs. The reasoning behind this logic is since the majority of the expenses incurred for each unit produced are for the parts and labor to produce the computer. The other 6% of the expenses the fixed costs of the property, plant, equipment and land costs to produce the laptops. Therefore, approximately $,6 (in millions) is recognized as fixed costs and $5,7 (in millions) qualified as the variable costs of producing the notebooks. After determining the variable costs associated with the Inspiron, we can now determine the variable cost per unit produced. We took the total revenue of the Inspiron for 00 and divided it by the average cost of the laptop, $1,500, and determined that 5,886,000 units sold in 00. We can then take the variable costs of the Inspiron and divide by the total number of units to arrive at $05 in variable costs for each unit. Therefore, for Dell to breakeven in their laptop division after lowering the price of the Inspiron to $1,00, the company would have to sell 10,155, units to recover all of the fixed costs of production. This can be determined by using the following equation. We subtracted the variable costs from the revenue associated with the Inspiron arriving at $5 left to absorb the fixed costs of production. We then divide the total fixed costs of $,6 (in millions) by $5 to arrive at the break-even point of 10,155, units. The total demand at the price of $1,500 was 5,886,000 units and the total amount demanded at the price of $1,00 must be 10,155, in order to break-even. These figures indicate that we will have to increase production and demand by 7.5% in order to reach the break-even point in production.

This leads us into our next topic, price elasticity of demand. To measure the price elasticity of demand it is necessary to take the absolute value of the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in price (Hall & Lieberman, p. ).

If Dell reduces the price of their laptops by 0%, the price elasticity of demand will determine how sensitive the quantity demanded will be as the price changes. For example, the Dell Inspiron on average costs consumers $1500. If Dell has reduced their price by 0% or $00, we will assume that consumers' interests will increase and the demand for the product will increase by 40%. Therefore, the 0% change in price resulted in a 40% increase in the quantity demanded, which means that the price elasticity of demand for Dell Inspiron laptops is two.

The demand elasticity number also helps determine the percentage change in quantity demanded per 1 percent increase in price. Subsequently, as Dell continues to lower their prices 1 percent, this should directly affect the quantity demanded to rise by percent. However, the demand elasticity number determines the response of quantity demanded to a fluctuation in price when all other influences on demand remain unchanged. Therefore, if consumers experience a change in income, preference or if the price of competing laptops changes, it may cause the price elasticity of demand for Dell's Inspiron to also change.

We consider the market that Dell operates in as an oligopoly. In this market, there are many sellers but only a few large manufacturers. The profits of competition depend on the differences in price between their products. If we lower Dell's prices by 0% in an effort to maximize profits, there will be long run and short run consequences. Tactics that result in a price war in this type of market will not result in optimal profits for Dell or its competitors.

In the short run, if Dell lowered its prices by 0% its competition may follow the lead and lower their prices. The competition is aware that lowering prices results in more sales so they will mirror Dell's strategy. In the long run, if Dell lowered its prices by 0% and the competition lowered its prices by 0% revenue for all companies would decrease.

The more time consumers have to make adjustments the more the riskier this price reduction may become. The long run will give the consumers time to find other products or companies that they would prefer to deal with. Consumers may find even lower prices on substitutes for Dell products by buying used products, remanufactured products, or simply switching brands. The long run will also give Dell the information it needs regarding its consumers' loyalty. Many customers are loyal to Dell's brand name and reputation and they are willing to pay a higher price than their competitors charge.

Dell is one of the most successful businesses in its industry and has been able to maintain a strong financial mix. Their equity to debt ratio is 11 percent, whereas the industry average is around 50 percent. (Krause 00) One of the most important things to keep in mind is that Dell has had an advantage, as it relates to cost, because they sell directly to the customer or end user of all of their products. Dell's approach to the PC business has two advantages (1) reducing cost by leaving out the middlemen (distributors and retail dealers), and () building the product to order, which eliminates carrying large volumes of both and finished goods. These cost advantages have allowed Dell to gain market share during times when the economy was down. "According to Lehman Brothers research, a 1 point gain in world market share equals about $ billion in additional revenues." (Krause 00)

Many large corporations and small business choose to use Dell laptops. The only constraint that I can see is the merger between Hewlett Packard and Compaq. "If Hewlett Packard and Compaq are able to take full advantage of any synergies that exist, they may be able to challenge Dell as a low-cost provider." (Krause 00) This is the major reason that Dell has the power it has in this market.

Krause Fund Equity Research has a sensitivity analysis that detail best and worse case scenarios. There is a projected 4 percent growth for notebooks in 00 and 004 with a continuing value growth rate of percent. "Due to the inability to apply pressure on suppliers, the cost of revenues increased 1 percent, when compared to the most likely scenario." (Krause 00) We have based all of this information on the worst-case scenario for Dell. In the best-case scenario, results would yield rate in the teens for the laptops through 008, with a continuing growth rate of 4.75 percent. "The cost revenues will decrease by 1 percent when compared to the most likely situation, due to Dell's bargaining abilities with suppliers." (Krause 00)

The pricing committee has used the data obtained during the research phase to determine that a 0% reduction in retail price of the Inspiron would not cause maximize Dells profits at this time. The 0% reduction would increase the demand level needed above the projected levels of demand. There is also a great risk that a price war could develop between Dell and its competitors that would also decrease demand and lower profitability greatly. The pricing committee will continue to develop strategies that may increase the profitability of the company to present to stockholders in future meetings.

Competitive Reaction

The pricing committee has been performing research to determine if a 0% price reduction in our Inspiron laptops would increase the company's market share and profitability. The committee has established estimates based only on the changes within Dell without regard to competitive reaction. The marketing department has assisted the pricing committee to establish possible reactions by the competitors in the market. We will identify Dell's marketing structure and assess the reactions that Dell can expect from the competition.

Dell operates in an oligopoly market and faces the threat of strong competitors that have the ability to react quickly to any changes made in Dell's overall structure. Dell has been able to gain considerable market share by offering custom systems and high levels of customer service. Dell has been extremely competitive in the area of pricing and has been able to experience significant growth without lowering prices significantly in the market.

The marketing department has gathered research that estimates that a price reduction of 0% on Dell laptops will cause competitors to react by also lowering prices to remain competitive. The research estimates that the reductions offered by the competitors will be less than the 0% offered by Dell but will still reduce the impact the price change will have on Dell's overall market share. This change in expected revenue will cause the cost per unit to rise and expected profitability to lower.

The marketing department also has expressed concern that consumers may have a negative reaction to the new pricing because Dell has recently expanded its line of products. Dell has started to offer computer accessories such as printers and digital cameras that were once not part of the Dell product line. Consumers may perceive that as Dell begins offering additional accessories and the customers give less attention to the computer systems produced. This may possibly lead consumers to believe that Dell is sacrificing quality in their computer systems to offer additional products. In addition, the price reduction may only strengthen this perception to Dells customers. It is highly likely that the competition may utilize this perception in targeted marketing to draw the attention of consumers to this issue.

Considering the possible reactions by the competitors in the market it may be better for Dell to consider other options than a reduction in a single line of products, such as the Inspiron. In either scenario above, Dell would possibly lose either profitability or market share. If competitors react by reducing their prices to remain competitive then Dell will not observe the projected growth in market share needed to compensate for the reduction in profits. If competitors react by targeting Dell as a company that is sacrificing quality for the expansion of its product line then consumers may actually be willing to pay the higher price of the competitor. This will lead to an insignificant increase in market share and a strong possibility of decreased profitability.

The proposals from the marketing department suggest that it may be more beneficial for Dell to develop computer packages instead of offering a price reduction on specific products in the Dell line. Since Dell is beginning to broaden its line of computer accessories, it has the ability to absorb the price change as a bundled package rather than lowering the price of a specific item within the package. This will allow Dell to increase its market share in the accessories market while still maintaining the quality image of the Dell computer line. If Dell absorbs the price change into its bundled packages, the marketing department believes that there will be little competitor reaction to this. The reaction will be much greater if Dell chooses to lower the price of a single line of computer system. Dell is able to make a choice that will not only increase the demand for a computer line that is already strong but will also increase the demand of the new line of accessories Dell has made available to the market.

Considering the additional data that the marketing department offered, the pricing committee will strongly consider the option of absorbing the pricing change into additional savings to the consumer on bundled packages. This strategy appears to be one that will offer considerable growth in market share for Dell computer line.

Macroeconomic Assessment

We expect Dell to outperform the industry as soon as the first quarter of the year 00. "Dell continued to successfully deliver on its strategy to sequentially improve operating profitability despite challenging industry conditions. Net operating margins for the period were 7.4 percent of revenue versus 6.8 percent in the year-ago fourth quarter. Operating expenses were 10. percent of revenue, the lowest level in company history. Dells leading asset, management, helped generate more than $1 billion in cash from operations during the fourth quarter. Total cash and investments at the close of the period were $8. billion. Four days of supply in inventory matched the low achieved in the previous two quarters." (Dell Computer, 00)

The shareholders have requested a 1-month assessment of how the planning and business strategies for Dells laptops affected by macroeconomic forecasted events. General economic and industry conditions may result in a decrease in net revenue. Due to the fact that Dell is a global company with customers in virtually every business and industry, their net revenue could decrease as a result of macroeconomic trends in both the U.S. and abroad. If the current economy does not improve, or continues to decline, customers or potential customers could reduce or delay their technology investments. This state in the economy could negatively affect Dells net revenue and earnings. Specifically, if interest rates rise, this could affect manufacturing and the purchase of new capital and equipment.

Based on several economic forecasts, the interest rates are projected to increase over the next 1-months. This will affect Dells spending habits. If they decide to hold off on purchasing new manufacturing equipment, this will affect their profitability because of cycle time relative to production. If they fall behind their competitors, and the cost increases, this may hurt Dell in 004.

Dells success is based on its ability offer its products and services at a lower price than its competitors. However, Dell continuously encounters aggressive competition from organizations in the U.S. and abroad. Therefore, Dell cannot provide any assurance that it can maintain a pricing advantage over its competitors if they alter their cost structure or business model or take other actions that affect Dells current competitive advantage. Subsequently, if Dell cannot maintain its competitive advantage over its competitors, this may result in a loss of market share and profitability.

One macroeconomic forecasted event Dell needs to consider is retail sales. The National Retail Federation sees an increase in consumer confidence for the end of 00 and the year 004. This will translate into increased sales for retail companies. Economists have estimated that the year 00 holiday sales at $17 billion, which is a 5.7% increase from the year 00. Online sales have an even greater outlook with estimates as high as a 7% increase for the fourth quarter of 00. Online sales only account for about % of the retail industries total but still this is a positive outlook for Dell to consider when estimating its sales for the year.

Based on economic data from the Livingston Survey the real gross domestic product forecasted an increase in the next twelve months by about .56%. The gross domestic product measures the billions of dollars spent in the United States economy overall on finished goods and services in a year. Due to the fact that economists are not seeing too much of an increase in the money spent in the United States in 004 we must prepare to find other ways to increase our revenues in the next year. Therefore, we feel that we must capture some of the dollars spent on technology and computers in other ways than the current methods we are using.

One way that we feel is an expanding area is the ability to use the computer to work in addition to being able to watch television on the same monitor. Therefore, we decided to introduce the Dell W1700 17" LCD TV that just became available in the United States on 10/8/0.

The W1700 17 LCD TV features both VGA and DVI inputs for use with a computer system, as well as an integrated tuner and S-video, component video, and composite video inputs for use as a television, whether or not it is connected to a PC. The remote control enables users to easily choose whether to use the display as a monitor or television and access its many features. (Dell 10//0)

The display is HDTV compatible for all of those people who are worried about the conversion process that we will probably encounter in the next ten years.

Dell today introduced the Dell Digital Jukebox (Dell DJ) music player and announced details of a partnership with Musicmatch® to provide customers an easy, legal way to download their favorite songs and albums. Dell will be offering a unit that will hold about 15-0 GB of hard drive space that is available to download songs of the service of Musicmatch®. The unit will cost approximately $4-$. The user will have the ability to use the unit for up to 16 hours. Afterwards the customer can recharge the device with a laptop or the AC adaptor included with the Dell DJ. Musicmatch® is a no subscription service that will allow users to download songs that they choose for cents each or $. per album (Dell, 10/7/0). This will allow users to legally download the selections that they chose without having to purchase the entire album.

We also feel that it is necessary to constantly improve our brand name products such as the Dell Desktop Dimensions, Dell Inspiron Laptops, Dell Axim PDA, Dell Printers, Dell High Speed Internet Access and Dell Financing items offered to our consumers personal needs and home office needs. Dell also offers a line designed to fit the needs of small and large businesses through Dell desktops, workstations, laptops, servers, storage and networking, software and peripherals and services and training. Finally, Dell also offers a line of computers intended for the government, education and healthcare sectors of the market. If Dell is able to obtain a competitive advantage by being superior to all of their competitors in the products that they produce and supply to their customers. In addition, Dell is taking steps to help prepare for the drop in demand of computers that will eventually result when the market stabilizes.

Recommended Strategies for Becoming More Profitable

One strategy that Dell should continue to incorporate within their organization relates to research and development. Research and development is critical for many top tiered organizations in the US to ensure that they stay ahead of their competitors and increase their market share. By continuously allocating money to the research and development budget, Dell will continue to improve and succeed in the new economy.

Ultimately, Dell hopes to take its brand of innovation to the bank. It aims to double revenue to $60 billion over the next few years, largely by selling new products such as consumer electronics and information technology services. (Spooner, 00)

Therefore, if they want to hit these targets it will beneficial for them to hire more engineers to assist in the design, development, and testing phases. By hiring more employees and introducing more products to the market, this is one way that Dell can do its share to help the economy prosper. Additionally, for each dollar they spend on research and development, this could potentially result in a significant tax credit. The research and development tax credit includes all wages for qualified activities, all supplies consumed in the research efforts, and research conducted by outside vendors, up to 65%.

In 001, a survey taken by Dell employees, after the first layoff in the companies history, told Michael Dell (CEO) and Kevin Rollins (President) that over half of the employees were discontent, felt little loyalty and would leave Dell if they had the opportunity to do so. In addition, internal interviews revealed that many subordinates thought Dell, 8, was impersonal and emotionally detached, while many saw Rollins, 50, as autocratic and antagonistic (Park). (My section so far!!!)

Dells commitment to the environment continues to expand throughout their manufacturing and assembly facilities. Specifically, Dells Environmental Management System (EMS) adheres to the necessary requirements set forth by ISO 14001 as the internationally recognized standard for EMS. Additionally, Dell has continued to be in compliance with all laws and regulations required by the local regions when it involves environmental objectives and performance targets, managing each of its facilities to minimize waste and pollution and to conserve energy resources.

Because of Dells business model, which yields strong production inventory and capital investment efficiencies, they are able to produce tangible benefits for the environment. Dells products are made-to-order, which means that their inventory turnover rate is the fastest in the industry, averaging only four days parts and equipment. Because of this build to order inventory system, Dell is able to keep the environmental impact of warehousing to a minimum. Dell does not order or have any components shipped to their manufacturing facilities until they are ready for final assembly. Ultimately, this results in energy and building cost savings that are associated with storing inventory.

So as you can see, the new economy is welcomed by Dell, as they intend to expand upon their build-to-order inventory system and their research and development efforts. Because millions of people rely on their technology, Dell will continue to be one of the leaders in the industry and will also continue to be profitable for many years to come.

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Wednesday, March 10, 2021

Abstinence: The Best Choice for Health

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Introduction

Abstinence is the act of refraining from something; in this case that something is sexual intercourse. There are many reasons for abstaining from sex. These reasons can be covered in physical, emotional, and spiritual areas.

Physical

STDs

STDs, or Sexually Transmitted Diseases, are infectious diseases that are passed from one person to another mostly during sexual contact. STDs are one of the most common infections known. More than 1 million people in the United States are infected with STDs every year. One forth, or million, of those people are teenagers. The United States has the highest STD rate in the world, which is that one in ten Americans will catch a Sexually Transmitted Disease during his or her lifetime. Also, there are growing rates of people becoming infected with an STD. In 167, one in thirty-two people had an STD. In 181, one in eighteen people had an STD. In 15, one in three people had an STD.

Studies show that Americans between the ages of 16 and 4 are at greater risk for contracting STDs than older adults are. This is because younger people are more likely to have many sexual partners rather than a single, long-lasting relationship. Also, young people might be more likely to have unprotected sex and may be embarrassed to tell their sexual partners they are infected. People may also be embarrassed and unable to seek any kind of treatment for their STD(s). This means that they are not only more likely to pass the disease to other young people, but they also have a greater risk of suffering the long-term consequences of untreated sexually transmitted diseases.

At least 50 percent of all people in the U.S. will develop an STD some time before they are 5 years old. The STD that a person is likely to develop depends on where they live and with whom they engage in risky sexual behavior. It also has to do with the characteristics of the organism causing the STD. Certain age groups are more vulnerable to acquiring STDs. Adolescents and young adults are at the highest risk. This is because adolescents and young adults are more willing to engage in risky activities and are most resistant to adopting prevention methods. They also are physiologically more prone to developing an infection. Women usually are the ones who this happens to. Adolescents and young adults may be at high risk for undertreating their STD, which puts them at risk to continue spreading it to another person. Remember that for someone to become infected with an STD, there has to be sexual contact with an infected person. When an STD causes uncomfortable symptoms like vaginal discharge, painful urination, or visible lesions, a person is likely to seek medical attention before engaging in further sexual activity. But even STDs that do produce uncomfortable symptoms have long incubation periods in which they are infectious. They may also be harbored in people who did not complete treatment enough to totally eliminate all traces off the disease, but took enough medicine to alleviate the symptoms. Or, the infected person did not recognize the illness they had as an STD, which usually happens when the initial symptoms of the disease might be mistaken for the common flu (which occurs in HIV disease or hepatitis). To acquire an STD, one has to engage in risky behavior, like unprotected sexual activity. This will put certain populations at higher risk, like adolescents, persons who abuse drugs and alcohol, and people who exchange sex for money. Anyone has the ability to acquire and transmit an STD, regardless of his or her gender, race, color, sexual orientation or nationality.

Many people think that condoms take away all chances of contracting an STD. This is a myth. In fact, condoms can't fully save you. STDs can infect you very easily. Thirty million STD bacteria can fit into one period at the end of the sentence. This amplifies the fact that STDs are easy to acquire.

There are many kinds of STDs for people to be infected by. New STDs are being found every year.

Chlamydia is caused by the Chlamydia trachomatis bacterium. It is the most commonly transmitted STD in the United States. The incubation period for the bacterium is 1 to 5 weeks, with 1 to weeks being the most common incubation period. Transmission rates are equal between males and females. "According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), about 500,000 chlamydia infections are reported each year. But because chlamydia may not produce noticeable symptoms, it often goes undiagnosed, and the CDC estimates that the true incidence of chlamydia is nearly ten times the number of reported cases." (Encarta) People who don't know they're infected probably will not seek to get help through medical care and they might continue to remain sexually active. This would cause them to unknowingly spread the disease. When symptoms develop, men may experience painful burning urination. Women experience burning urination, vaginal discharge, or mild lower abdominal pain. If left untreated, chlamydia damages reproductive tissue, which causes inflammation of the urethra in men and possibly pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in women. PID can cause chronic, debilitating pelvic pain, infertility, or fatal pregnancy complications. Chlamydia infections are diagnosed by testing vaginal and penile discharge for any kind of presence of certain bacteria.

Syphilis peaked in the United States during the 140s. Discovery of penicillin, along with public health programs, accounts for the dramatic decrease of syphilis among the U.S. population seen today. Even though this happened, syphilis is still a major sexually transmitted disease and outbreaks of the disease have occurred in recent years. There were 5,5 cases of syphilis reported in 16.The incidence of disease is greatest in rural and urban areas of the South in the United States. Syphilis is caused by the organism Treponema pallidum, which a member of the family Spirochaetaceae. The organism is a tightly coiled, corkscrew-shaped bacterium. It cannot be cultured in vitro (outside the body and in an artificial environment), and can only be viewed under darkfield or electron microscopy. The organism is too thin to be seen under light microscopes. Transmission of the organism occurs by sexual contact. Thirty to forty percent of persons exposed to an infected person will get the bacteria. T. Pallidum can also be transmitted through kissing, blood transfusion, or from a mother to her fetus through the placenta. The bacterium enters the body through abrasions in the skin. The incubation period of syphilis is between and 0 days, with an average of 1 days. In four stages of having syphilis, things such as rash, ulcers, lesions, enlarged lymph glands, headache, and fever occur. Organs are also infected. Infection of the heart and major blood vessels is usually what seems to account for most deaths through this disease. Treatment for all stages of syphilis is with antibiotics. Special attention needs to be paid to pregnant women who test positive for syphilis, as there are high rates of transmission from mother to fetus, particularly when the woman has first or second stage syphilis. Untreated syphilis during pregnancy can cause premature labor or stillbirth (the birth of a dead fetus). Infants who are born infected with T. pallidum usually become sick by the third month of life. Manifestations of congenital syphilis include meningitis, anemia, and deafness.

Chancroid, a venereal disease, is not a very known STD in the United States. It has less than one thousand cases reported each year. Chancroid is caused by the bacterium Hemophilis ducreyi. Testing for chancroid is done by taking a sample of tissue from the supposed chancroid lesion. The incubation period of H. ducreyi is to 10 days. Chancroid is characterized by the development of an extremely painful lesion that usually appears in the genital region. At first the lesion looks like a raised bump that continues to grow and ulcerate over a 1 to day period. The lesion is painful as well as soft, with jagged edges, and its base may develop a yellow or gray type of ooze, or exudate. About half of people infected with H. ducreyi will develop lymphadenopathy, or infection of lymphatic vessels (mostly located at the neck, armpit, and groin). Treatment for chancroid is with antibiotics. Partners should be treated whether or not they have developed a lesion. In addition, since chancroid is related with HIV infection, the patient and his or her partners should be tested for HIV as well.

Rates of gonorrhea in the United States were the highest between 160 and 175. In 175, a national gonorrhea control program helped reduce the spread of the disease, and rates have been declining ever since then. However, gonorrhea is still a public health problem. About one to two million cases of gonorrhea occur in the United States every year, although only a fraction of these end up being detected and treated. The infection is highest in certain geographical areas or populations. Rates are highest in the South and in large cities throughout the U.S. Rates are also higher among adolescents and minorities. The large majority, which is over 80 percent of cases, occur in people ages 15 to . The highest incidences with males occur between 0 and 4 years, and with females between 15 and 1 years. The organism Neisseria gonorrhoeae causes gonorrhea. It is fast-growing, and divides in two every 0 to 0 minutes. N. gonorrhoeae can ultimately produce an almost complete resistance to penicillin. N. gonorrhoeae grows best at 6 degrees centigrade in a to 5 percent carbon dioxide environment. Transmission of the bacteria between people occurs through intercourse. Genital exposures are less efficient at spreading the bacteria. Transmission from a woman to a man after one exposure is estimated to occur about 0 percent of the time. Passage of the infection from a man to a woman is estimated to be higher. The incubation period of N. gonorrheae is 1 to 14 days, with an average of to 7 days. During this time, the toxins damage the epithelial cells that N. gonnorheae produce, and a local, purulent infection occurs in the submucosa and luminal spaces. This process helps explain the symptoms the bacteria cause in humans. The signs and symptoms of gonorrhea differ between men and women. For men, the majority will experience painful urination due to an urethral infection. About 5 percent of men with the infection will not have a urethral infection and may experience only the complications of the disease later. For women, gonorrhea may go undetected because only 50 to 80 percent of women experience symptoms once they are infected. Sometimes the symptoms, if experienced, may be so minimal that the woman may not choose to seek help. Symptoms of these two sites of infection include painful urination and increased need to urinate, along with abnormal discharge. When the woman complains of extreme abdominal pain in addition to these symptoms it is possible that she has pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), in which the bacteria have infected her fallopian tubes and other reproductive organs. If the woman is pregnant and has PID, spontaneous abortion, premature delivery of an infant, and problems in the newborn will result. Because complicated infections can cause scarring of reproductive tissue, infertility could result. Other sites of infection for both men and women include the anus and rectum, throat and eye. Results of these can be pain and bleeding. Throat infections may present sore throats to those who suffer. Eye infections occur in those with the disease, also. Disseminated gonococcal infection can occur in both men and women, although it is extremely rare. Only 1 to percent of the cases of gonorrhea result in disseminated infection. In disseminated infection the person may experience fever, arthritis, skin lesions, hepatitis, endocarditis and meningitis. Infants can also suffer from this. They would show signs such as arthritis and meningitis. Up to 50 percent of people with gonorrhea also have chlamydial infections. Therefore, treatment for gonorrhea with an antibiotic should also include treatment for chlamydia with another, appropriate antibiotic. A person who gets diagnosed with gonorrhea and receives an antibiotic must be sure to take all the antibiotics in the prescription. He or she then needs to return to a health care provider to get retested for the infection, just to ensure that it is not still present. Partners of the infected person should also go to their local health clinic to get tested for gonococcal infection.

Human papilloma virus (HPV) causes genital warts. There are over 100 subtypes of human papilloma viruses that cause warts, and each type causes warts in a specific part of the body. Over 0 subtypes of HPV cause warts in the genital area, and these subtypes are the ones that cause the STD genital warts. Only the HPV that causes genital infection is discussed in this section. Determining exactly how many people are infected with HPV is difficult, because most infections do not cause many symptoms and frequently go undiagnosed. However, it is estimated that twenty to fourty million Americans were infected with the virus, which makes it the most frequent viral STD. For people in the 0 to 4 age group, it is the fastest growing STD. Since HPV causes cervical cancer in women, one way to determine the disease burden is to track cases of cervical cancer. Cases of cervical cancer in the U.S. occur in 14,000 women a year and cause 5000 deaths a year. Having multiple sexual partners, or having a single sexual partner who has had multiple sexual partners, puts one at higher risk for becoming infected with HPV. In addition, adolescents and young adults are at high risk for the disease. These two factors are similar for all STDs. One reason that young women are at particularly high risk has to do with the lack of development. When a woman is more mature and developed, they are at lower risk. HPV itself is a small, double-stranded DNA virus of the papovaviridia family. It is transmitted from person to person during direct sexual contact in which there are micro abrasions in the skin. There are high rates of transmission following one single exposure. The incubation period of the virus is estimated to be weeks to 0 months or longer, but is usually 4 to 8 weeks. The virus infects cells found in skin membranes. It replicates in the nucleus of these cells. The course of the infection is different depending on the subtype of HPV (some are worse and "stonger" than others) and the immune status of the host. HPV can cause lesions in both women and men. Benign lesions are typically the visible warts, called condyloma. Condyloma can occur anywhere in the genital area for both women and men that have contracted the human papilloma virus. Condyloma may be so small as to be invisible to the eye but can also be seen as flesh-colored or pink slightly raised bumps on the skin. Some condylomas are almost flat, and are only minimally elevated. Condyloma can also grow to be quite large and can interfere with urination. They may also cause painful intercourse and itching in women. Men may complain of difficulty urinating. The risk of cancer from HPV infection is much higher in women than in men. Both men and women are at risk of anal cancer as well, if HPV has infected anal skin. Women (and men) are typically screened for skin and pigment changes at a health exam. Women also are screened for cervical cancer through the PAP Smear, which is recommended for all sexually active women. Often, women receive a diagnosis of HPV based on cellular changes detectable on their PAP Smears. Women (less commonly men) that are diagnosed with HPV may be recommended to undergo colposcopy. Colposcopy is simply the use of a high-powered light and microscope to examine the affected tissue in more depth. Treatment of genital HPV consists of chemical methods, freezing or laser treatment of the tissue infected with HPV. This is done so it can help any discomfort that might be there and, most importantly, prevent the progression to cancer. No treatment will fully eliminate the virus from the host, however.

Viral hepatitis is a sensitive or chronic liver disease caused by several etiologic agents. The term hepatitis refers to inflammation of the liver; viruses are only some of the current causes of hepatitis. Five types of viral hepatitis are currently known, and they are hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), HBV-associated delta agent or hepatitis D virus (HDV), and hepatitis E virus (HEV). Each virus causes liver disease of a different course and outcome, some mild to moderate, others terminal and life threatening. There are extensive studies of viral hepatitis. HBV, and its associated HDV, are transmitted through exposure to blood, blood products and bodily fluids, and sexual activity is known to contribute to their transmission. The mode of transmission of HCV is believed to be largely through blood exposures, but since a certain proportion of HCV-infected individuals lack any history of blood exposures, the transmission of HCV is considered to be unproven but possible. As with all viruses, there are no cures for the illnesses, only treatment for their symptoms as well as attempts to lessen the concentration of the virus in the blood. Prevention includes the avoidance of risky behaviors, including unprotected sex, or really sex at all. Vaccines for HAV and HBV exist and are effective. HBV vaccination is now a routine vaccination for children in the U.S., but was only fairly recently developed as a routine childhood vaccine. HBV vaccination is indicated for sexually active men and women, as well as injection drug users and persons in high-risk professions. HAV vaccination is usually reserved for persons traveling to countries with unreliable water and food supplies.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), the cause of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), is a relatively recently discovered virus. The virus was isolated in 18 and linked to AIDS in 184. In 185 a test was developed to identify HIV, and since then the percentage of a population that is affected (detectable by blood test; at a given time) with the disease in the United States and across the world has been under careful inspection. The attention paid to HIV disease and AIDS since its discovery has been exponential, resulting in significant information in HIV virology, its pathogenesis, and treatment. The rate at which information flows within the study of HIV is unsurpassed by any other disease. HIV is a disease that is transmitted sexually. It was estimated that by the end of 1, over .4 million adults were infected with the virus, along with 1. million children. In the U.S., AIDS is the leading cause of death for certain groups of 5 to 44 year-olds. Since HIV is spread through sexual contact and exposure to blood products, characteristics of AIDS are directly related to the practice of risky behaviors, such as unprotected sex or injection drug use. In the United States, HIV infection was initially concentrated in the male homosexual population. However the proportion of people newly infected who obtained the infection through heterosexual contact continues to increase significantly. Outside of the U.S., heterosexual contact is usually the largest reason why the human immunodeficiency virus is transmitted. Mothers also pass the virus on to their children during pregnancy, birth or breastfeeding. Until the blood supply was screened beginning in 185, some people who became infected who were not previously due to not enough control of the screenings. This was because of lack of cleanliness with blood transfusions or through medical treatments that contained blood products. The virus is classified as a retrovirus, in which the enzyme reverse transcriptase is responsible for the conversion of its RNA to DNA. HIV binds to a molecule in your DNA. The life cycle of HIV in the host is complicated, lengthy, and varied. The so-called "seal" of HIV disease is its ability to avoid clearance from the immune system, instead taking up residence in tissue and establishing a chronic, long term infection in which the hosts immune system is slowly destroyed. The average length of time between initial infection and clinical illness is ten years. Transmission of HIV occurs through direct entrance of the virus into the bloodstream via infected blood or products made with infected blood. This can occur through such risky behaviors as sharing injection needles, injuries with sharp and contaminated objects, transmission during birth, or sexual intercourse in which there is some bleeding. Blood transfusions are also a method of transmission. Since 185, the U.S. blood supply has been screened, and since then transfusion has been an extremely rare method of HIV transmission. However, other countries around the world may lack the resources to screen their blood supplies. The signs and symptoms of HIV disease and AIDS are varied and extensive. Any person diagnosed with an STD, or who has engaged in unprotected sexual activity or other risky behaviors, may decide to undergo HIV testing. If a person has engaged in risky behavior with someone they know is HIV positive, they should seek medical help immediately following the risky behavior. If a person has engaged in risky behavior with one or more people in his or her past and wishes to receive an HIV test, they can undergo serologic testing. The HIV test is a test for antibodies to the virus. These antibodies can take weeks to months to develop in sufficient enough amounts to be detectable on the HIV tests that are currently available. Therefore, HIV tests reliably give information on a persons HIV status as of about six months prior to the test, not information on the persons current HIV status. This six-month time frame is called the window period. As many already know, there is no cure for HIV disease or AIDS. There is only management of the symptoms. Because of this, all efforts should be made toward the prevention of this disease. Prevention of HIV disease includes engaging in safe sex, however, there is no such thing, so complete abstinence is the only thing that can save you from HIV in this area of provention. Another prevention method would be not sharing needles during injection drug use activities.

The herpes simplex virus, otherwise known as HSV, is a double- stranded DNA virus. It is a member of the human herpes viruses, or herpetoviridae, group. This group includes varicella zoster virus (chicken pox). There are two types of herpes simplex virus, types I and II. Both HSV I and HSV II can be considered STDs, since they both can be transmitted sexually and both can cause lesions in the genital area. HSV II accounts for around 70 to 5 percent of genital herpes infections. The remaining 5 to 0 percent of genital herpes infections can be counted towards HSV I. According to a survey of 40,000 Americans conducted between 188 and 14, the overall HSV II incidence rate in the United States is almost percent. Genital herpes is the most common cause of genital ulcers in the world, with about 0 million cases diagnosed annually. Unprotected sexual activity, mostly with multiple partners, and being female increases your risk of acquiring HSV II. There are also increased rates of HSV among African American and Latino populations, and those in lower social and economic groups. Transmission of HSV occurs during sex when an infected partner passes on the virus through microabrasions in his or her partners skin. The person passing on the herpes needs to be shedding the virus at the time of contact with his or her partner. Usually, shedding of the virus occurs when the infected person is experiencing an outbreak of lesions. However, viral shedding can take place before a lesion erupts, or can take place when there are no lesions. This is called asymptomatic shedding. The rate at which an infected person sheds the virus is entirely dependent on the individual, but some studies show that an infected person may be shedding the virus 1 out of every 4 days. Once an cell is infected in another person, the virus replicates at a high rate. Inside the body the virus invades sensory nerves and takes up residency for the life of the host in their sensory nerve cell bodies. Initial infection causes symptoms, but once these symptoms are resolved, the person is at risk for a later recurrence of an outbreak. Primary infection refers to an initial, or first, infection with HSV. Fifty to seventy percent of people will develop fever, aches, and headache along with symptoms in the genital region. Genital symptoms may begin as pain, itching, painful urination, discharge, and progress to the development of characteristic lesions. The lesions first appear as red bumps or blisters, which turn into ulcerations before crusting over. They are often painful. At the onset of the infection, the person will be infectious and shedding the virus for up to twelve days. These lesions may appear all over the genital area on both men and women. The lesions may take up to three weeks to heal. Lesions can also occur on the lips or in the mouth of a person. Lesions that only occur orally on a person may be attributed to HSV I infection, and exist in the absence of having HSV as an STD. Occurrences of HSV I in the U.S. population are, actually, widespread. Over 0 percent of adults will be infected with HSV I by the fifth decade of life. There is evidence that a previous infection with HSV I decreases how severe an initial infection with HSV II can be. When lesions occur on and around the eye, they should be taken very seriously, because they can cause serious damage. New symptoms may occur in a recurrence, but in the absence of symptoms in a recurrence, the person may shed the HSV. Outbreaks due to recurrences are usually more mild and of shorter duration than primary infection. Recurrences are triggered by unknown and known factors, such as exposure to sunlight, fever, trauma, diminished cellular immunity, and emotional stress. The numbers of recurrences per year vary per person, but on the average occur to 6 times a year. The disease can be passed from mother to child during birth. Health care providers usually make the diagnosis through visualization of herpetic lesions, but there are a variety of diagnostic tests that help identify and determine the type of herpes virus the child may have. Tests include culture and blood tests. Even if a test result is negative, the person cannot totally rule out having the disease, since obtaining a specimen (mostly for culture) is often difficult. Even though herpes simplex is a virus, there is no effective antibiotic therapy. Treatment of the symptoms of herpes with therapy may shorten the duration of outbreaks, especially if administered soon after the onset of symptoms. Some people may decide to go on long-term therapy to decrease the amount of recurrences in a given amount of time.

Pregnancy

Pregnancy is actually the biggest fear that teens and most other people have that engage in sexual activities. Eight of ten teenagers who choose to parent will live below the poverty level for at least ten years. Nine out of ten teenagers who choose to parent won't attend or graduate college.

Teen Pregnancy Outcomes

More than half (56%) of the 05,000 teenage pregnancies in 16 ended in births (/ of which were unplanned).

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