Philosophy:What are the differences between the sciences and the Arts.

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In this essay I will look closely at the many differences between arts and sciences. I will then discuss the similarities between arts and sciences in the light of my criticisms, and finally attempt to criticise science and scientists and show the arrogant assumptions that are made about science. There are several different criticisms that have been commonly levelled at science and scientists as a whole. I shall begin by attempting to identify these criticisms and identifying the reasoning behind each of them.

The first of these criticisms is that science has been given similar status to a religion. It was commonly thought in the early days of science that science would eventually develop a theory for everything, thereby replacing religion through removing the ambiguous and the incomprehensible parts of life with which religion dealt. In many ways science has replaced religion in the 1st century, as it has become the object of faith and even devotion. A blind faith has been placed in the unquestionable correctness of science and scientific research. It was Emile Durkheim who first advanced the theory that given enough time, science would replace all traditional religions to be replaced by a formal, unquestionable religion based upon science. It is the arrogance of many scientists that leads us to believe that scientific theories are facts, and can be treated as truth replacing religion by explaining the facts behind the creation and existence of the world. The problem with this belief that science is unquestionable fact and can be treated in a similar way to a religion is twofold. First, scientific theories are advanced through observation and experimentation, these theories can never be proved entirely correct since they are based only on certain observations, as the full facts can never be known, a theory can only be said to be correct in so far as it is correct from the observations made given the facts available. Secondly, science and religion can never be directly linked since they do not overlap in any shape or form. Science deals with the physical, religion with the insubstantial. In their very essence the two are diametrically opposed to one another and cant be compared. In short, science deals with the how, religion, the why. Although science attempts to understand the world around us, how it was created and how we and other creatures came to exist, it can never fully explain the automated human search for a higher being. There seems to be a desire within humans to believe in something larger and greater than that which is visible and physical, something science can never explain. For this reason, science can never replace religion, as it simply does not explain enough. Its explanations fall far short of what would be needed to satisfy human curiosity. Religion, in general, does a much better job of explaining what needs to be explained about human nature.

However, Scientists in recent years have attempted to give their work a status of being unquestionably correct. As I have already explained, the truth of science or the correctness or otherwise of a given theory can never be entirely proved. A theory can only be proved correct in so far as it is correct given a certain set of facts, and without having all the facts available, a theory can never be given the status of absolute fact, and consequently, no scientific theory can ever be proved, although it can be proved false through further research. However, this strong criticism of science can be taken even further. Karl Popper put forward the theory that scientific facts of the present day are simply probabilities, and only hold this status until such time as new evidence emerges allowing the theory to be dropped or adapted. Thomas Kuhn took this criticism of scientists even further, he believed that scientists, for the vast majority of the time, went to great lengths to fit their experiments to already existing theories, or when new information was taken into account, and it was simply accommodated by existing theories rather than new theories being created. Kuhn went further in his criticism; he claimed that when new theories were advanced, it was normally due to a competition between two scientists. Eventually, one theory would emerge victorious, however, this emergence, claimed Kuhn, had little to do with the correctness or otherwise of the theory and more to do with the political connections and status of the scientists involved in the battle. Feyerabend takes his criticism of the methodology of science to the extreme and claims that the scientific experiments are not based on observation of facts, but interpretation of what was seen. He claimed that theories were not so much formulated by experimentation and careful experimentation, but more through conjecture, metaphysical speculation, inspiration and revelation. This treats scientists as creative and irrational, making observations fit preconceived ideas, instead of the objective, rational, self-critical people they attempt to be.

A further criticism that has been levelled at science is that it is heavily dependent on cultural background and presuppositions, and not the value-free discipline that it is so frequently thought to be. This relies on the idea that a culture will only examine and discover that which is important to that culture. Science is currently accused of Eurocentricism. This refers to the western dominance that is exerted over scientific research. The result is that scientific study revolves around solving problems that afflict the western world, rather than attempting to solve far more difficult and profound problems afflicting the third world. For example, much funding is currently being given towards finding a cure for cancer. A further criticism of western science is that it is based on economics. Those who benefit most from a breakthrough in medical science are not those who benefit from the treatment as patients, but those who benefit as investors as they are the ones who receive the money from the sale of the treatment to health services and hospitals.

There is also arrogance about western methods of conducting scientific experiments. The western scientists appear to believe that there is only one way in which to conduct scientific experiments, there are no exceptions or contradictions. In actual fact, there are many varied ways of approaching science, and different cultures have different emphasise when examining the world around us according to their individual culture.

The supremacy of science, its entire correctness has been brought about by the arrogance of western scientists. For many years, scientists, through deception, have implanted the idea in peoples brains that scientific theories are unquestionably correct despite all information to the contrary. In fact, scientific supremacy has been taken so far through arrogance that the truth of science, as well as being rarely questioned, has gained the status of religion in our modern society, although science can never explain the human tendency to a belief in a God or a supernatural being, nor can it prove to the contrary. In this, however, I believe we see even more apparently the human desire for something to believe in, and despite its many flaws, for some people, science provides the alternative to a religion. Furthermore, in the attempt to maintain the belief that all scientific theories should be taken as gospel, scientists simply attempt to fit new information into old theories, or when a theory must be disregarded, it is described as unscientific. Scientific theories are also subject to human observation and therefore preconceived ideas, notions and creative thoughts. In this respect therefore, the observations can be made to fit the preconceived ideas. The supremacy of western science over other scientific cultures is also questionable as there are different ways to conduct science. In short, western science has arrogantly given the impression that there is only one true scientific method, that which is used by western scientists. This arrogance has led western peoples to believe unquestioningly in what scientists say, and those who read it unquestioningly apparently regard all scientific theory as absolutely correct.

When these criticisms are examined under close scrutiny, one finds that many of the criticisms that are levelled at arts and their relative biases due to human thinking are also being levelled at science. The creative nature of science, a concept that most people would not initially grasp given our set perception of science is most definitely a part of the creation of new theories. It is often the case that scientists are vulnerable to flashes of imagination and inspiration leading to preconceived ideas or bias when conducting an experiment based on observation. In this way, it can be shown that despite the perceived rationality of scientists. In fact, many of the observations made are seldom questioned, as it appears, when the scientist expects something to happen, that is what they see. It might be interesting to bring an impartial observer to an experiment of this kind and see what they saw. As it is, we are all so indoctrinated by the correctness of science that theories are seldom questioned. I can therefore state that science is not only based mainly upon inspirational thought, a creative aspect of the human brain, but is also subject to bias and human error. These are all concepts that can be directly compared with the arts.

In many ways, as I have proved both sciences and arts are based largely upon perception, and how an individual perceives a given event. The fact is that whether it is a reaction between marble chips and hydrochloric acid, a beautiful sunset or a set of events, the chemist, painter and historian are all subject to the brains interpretation of that which is set before it. The chemist may carefully observe the reaction noting down the changes, but this image is only understood through the brains interpretation of what the eyes see. Similarly, the brain of a painter may interpret a beautiful sunset through the eyes and hence the painter will paint an image based upon his perception. The historian, in a similar way to the way in which a scientist analyses his collected data, will analyse the facts that are presented to him in order to come up with a theory. In this way the many similarities between the sciences and arts as intellectual disciplines can be seen clearly, they are all ultimately reliant on perception and interpretation.

Therefore, it can be assumed that although scientists attempt to distance themselves from and repute any claims that science as a discipline is subject any form of human error and instead attempt to give the impression that scientists are meticulous, rational, careful, observant and prepared to check and recheck theories until it is certain that they are correct, they are in fact as subject to human creativity and capability to make errors as their artistic counterparts. It is this reliance upon humanity in the discipline of science that makes it so similar to the arts in its ability to make assumptions and mistakes.

However, despite all of this criticism, it is difficult to compare sciences and arts directly as they are evidently a considerably different in their very essence as they essentially deal with entirely different concepts, and all though some of the analysis and observation skills are common to both sorts of discipline the two are in many ways diametrically opposed to one another. Essentially, science is intent upon understanding that which exists in the world around us, whereas the arts are more concerned with interpretation of that same world. This fundamental emphasis that science places upon understanding may rely upon human observation and inspiration and therefore involve and element of human interpretation, but ultimately it is far more concerned with looking closely at the already existing interrelations between two things and upon close scrutiny, an interpretation can be made that can explain for the most part a complex interrelationship. On the other hand, the arts will not delve below the surface and look at the very fundamentals of life itself and break this down through complex analytical processes, instead the arts are concerned with that which exists in a different way. The arts are far more concerned with an appreciation of that which is perceived, and an interpretation of the same. For example, instead of breaking down a wheat field into many stalks of wheat composed of a stems, composed of vascular bundles and pith etc, an painter or poet will simply look at the beauty of the field in its entirety and write about or paint a picture of what he sees.

In conclusion, the sciences and arts have much in common; they are essentially dependent on the human imagination for inspiration. The creative influence of the human mind exerts a powerful influence over both intellectual disciplines, and scientific theories can be considered just as dependent upon this creative factor as the artistic disciplines. However, it can be said that in many ways science is more concerned by observation of facts reducing the scope for creativity after the initial idea. The scientific may not be able to suppress entirely his creative, artistic side but this is certainly less apparent in the scientist than in the artist. The scientist must be objective and look at everything as impartially as is humanly possible, rather than letting himself be swayed by what he expects or wants to happen. It is obvious that there is a certain element of bias is all scientific theories, but this is less apparent than with the artistic disciplines, where the artist has total control over how he portrays a given instance or scene and what bias he personally has. Sciences and arts separate essentially in what they deal with as a discipline. Science is essentially concerned with understanding, whereas the arts are more concerned with perception. This is the fundamental difference between the sciences and arts as intellectual disciplines, and although there are many comparisons to be drawn between to two intellectual disciplines due to their common dependence upon the frailties and faults of human nature, they are never the less essentially different in what they concentrate on.

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An Inspector Calls: Community Responsibility

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An Inspector Calls J B Priestley

How does J B Priestley put across the idea of ‘Community Responsibility', in the play, An Inspector Calls?

The play, An Inspector Calls, was written in 145, within a week of World War ending, but is set in 11, before World War 1. J B Priestley wrote this play purposely, as he saw an urgent need for social change, and he used the play, to convey his desire, for social equality. The period between the dates used, is to make us the audience, aware of what has happened, and to learn from mistakes made. Priestley, made the audience, take full notice, of how much wrong, can come from assuming the future. I will be analysing, how J B Priestley put across his idea, of ‘Community Responsibility'.

The play opens, with the celebrations of the family, for the engagement between Gerald Croft and Sheila Birling, in the Birlings' dining room, in Brumley, 11. During their party, Inspector Goole arrives, bringing the news of the suicide of a young girl named Eva Smith. She had swallowed some disinfectant and died. Each connection alone was not too terrible, but putting them together, they amount to a lot. Two years earlier, 110, when she worked at the Birling Factory, Eva Smith, had been dismissed by Arthur Birling, for asking for a pay rise. She soon got a job, working as an assistant at Milwards, an admirable shop. After just two months of working there, through one of Sheila's bad tempers, she got the sack. She then became Gerald's ‘mistress', and for a while, she was happy; but that was all to come to an end in September 111, when Gerald called off the affair. Two months after that, she met Eric Birling, and she becomes pregnant. She has no money, and will not accept Eric's, as she knows it was stolen. She then goes to Mrs Birling, who works for the Charity Committee, for help, and she is turned down. Finally, she had had enough, and she took her own life, and this is when the Inspector arrived. He forced the knowledge upon each one of them, that they each held some responsibility for her death. When the Inspector leaves, it is thought that maybe he was not a real Inspector, and it is revealed that no girl named Eva Smith had died that night. Mr and Mrs Birling, and Gerald, then act as if nothing has changed, but Eric and Sheila's faith in their parents, is destroyed, along with their happiness. This shows, that some people change, and others do not.

Mr Birling opens the play, with,

Mr Birling You ought to like this port Gerald. As a matter of fact, Finchley told me it's exactly the same port your father gets from him. (Act 1, Page )

Just from Birling's first line, it shows him trying to ‘social climb', by getting just a humble bottle of port. Status and class, are the most important things to Birling, and he does not care who he ‘walks over', to reach the top.

Mrs Birling, is described as a ‘rather cold woman', and we can see this from one of her many ‘snobbish' remarks.

Mrs Birling A girl of that sort. (Act, Page 47)

She had been referring to Eva Smith/Daisy Renton, and throughout the play, this is exactly the type of comment that Mrs Birling would make.

As cast in the film made in 15, by Guy Hamilton, we know that Sheila, is a ‘pretty girl, in her early twenties, very pleased with life, and rather excited'. Although in the beginning of the play, Sheila Birling came across as a self-centred, immature girl, she is the one, who develops and matures the most, throughout the play.

Eric Birling, is much like his sister Sheila. However, he is rather more awkward, and we can see this, when he is described as, ‘not quite at ease, half shy, assertive'. By the end of the play, both Eric and Sheila, have lost all faith in their parents, and are ‘one mind'.

Gerald is the son of Sir George Croft, rival of Mr Birling. He is polite and tactful, and being older than both Sheila and Eric, in his early thirties, is treated by Mr and Mrs Birling, as an equal.

Without the Inspector, none of the characters would ever have known that they had even ‘put a foot out of line'. He is the one who brings out the truth. This story is a story of hidden secrets and possibilities, and J B Priestley, uses the Inspector's character to highlight these.

Eva Smith/Daisy Renton remains a mystery throughout the pay. She resorted to picking up men at the Palace Theatre bar to earn a living, but she was kind, caring, and supportive of her fellow workers.

Birling And this girl, Eva Smith, was one of them. She'd had a lot to say far too much she had to go. (Act 1, Page 15)

She has obviously been fairly pretty; because Sheila had been jealous of they way that she had looked at Milwards. Despite never actually appearing on stage, and not ever finding out her real name, the play revolved, around the past two years of her life.

J B Priestley puts across the message of ‘Community Responsibility', mainly through the attitudes of the characters, and through dramatic irony. In Act 1, when Mr Birling is giving one of his many speeches, he mentions both the war, and the Titanic.

Mr Birling There isn't a chance of war. (Act 1, Page 7)

Mr Birling The Titanic she sails next week forty-six thousand eight hundred tonnes. And absolutely unsinkable. (Act 1, Page 7)

Because this play was set in 11, but written in 145, just after the end of the Second World War, all of the audience know that both statements that Birling had just made, were completely wrong. We had had two wars, and the Titanic had in fact sunk. The Titanic had been a symbol, of how supposedly secure, everything was in the world, for people like the Birlings' and the Crofts'. This is so ironic, and through this irony, Priestley had started to put across his message.

J B Priestley, has deliberately made clear, the difference between the Inspector and Mr Birling, to show a big contrast between the two. The Inspector, is warm-hearted and understanding, while Birling is uncaring and selfish. Mr Birling, did not care at all about Eva Smith, and in fact tried to blame it on Eva herself. He had absolutely no concept of a community, or his responsibilities towards it.

Mr Birling Still, I can't accept any responsibility. If we were all responsible for everything that happened to everybody we'd had anything to do with, it would be very awkward. (Act 1, Page 14)

By giving him this character, Priestley can make the audience recognize, just how wrong Mr Birling was, and show them the importance of helping others who are in need; especially those in one's own community.

Priestley gives each character, a very definite personality; most of them having a very narrow view of responsibility. Because of the disastrous consequences that come from the family's actions, the audience can clearly see what can happen if one gets too self-involved, and does not admit to their wrongs. Each action alone, does not amount to much, and Priestley uses this to his advantage, if the audience are able to see what happens if a small action is carried out, then they can imagine the consequences of a big action; and this is one of Preistley's methods of putting across his views.

Mrs Birling is described as a ‘rather cold woman', but she does in fact have a duty to the community, as she is involved with the Women's Charity Committee. However, she only helps those, who she thinks deserve to be helped, and unfortunately, Eva Smith was not one of those people.

Mrs Birling I wasn't satisfied with the girl's claim she seemed to me to be not a good case so I used my influence to have it refused. (Act, Page 44)

The audience can see how nasty and selfish the Birlings seem in this play, and nobody would want to be like them, so Priestley is showing the audience that if they want to not be like them, then they should take responsibility for their own actions, and this is exactly the message that he is trying to get across. We can also see here, that the Birlings were very highly respected in their community, and they definitely knew it.

Just before the Inspector enters, Birling is giving a speech, and he is talking about the nonsense of communities.

Mr Birling you'd think everybody has to look after everybody else, as if we were all mixed up together like bees in a hive community and all that nonsense. (Act 1, Page 10)

Here, J B Priestley is using the Inspector's entrance timing, as a sign of disproval with what Mr Birling has just said. Priestley has given Birling, completely the opposite personality to himself, to show that his own views are right. The audience can clearly see how wrong Birling is, so the only other way of living, is to live in contrast to him, and this is what Priestley wants people to do.

In the middle of Act 1, when the Inspector is talking to Mr Birling, Sheila and Gerald, Gerald says,

Gerald I don't really see that this inquiry gets you anywhere, Inspector. It's what happened to her since she left Mr Birling's works that is important. (Act 1, page 18)

Here, Gerald is partly correct. It is important to see what happened after she left the works, but it is also important to find out what happened at the time of working there. Gerald has been very quick to defend his future father-in-law and to tell the Inspector that Birling is not to blame, but what he does not realise, is that he is telling the Inspector that the rest of the family and himself, are to blame.

After being dismissed from Arthur Birling's works, Eva Smith found herself a job as a sales assistant at Milwards. Sheila had been a valued customer there, and she had used her influence, to get Eva the sack, after seeing her smiling in the mirror when she had been trying on a dress. Sheila had been jealous of the way that Eva had looked, and this tells us that she was a pretty soul. Sheila could not find it in herself to be happy for anyone but herself. Eva had been pretty, but Sheila was jealous. Sheila had everything that Eva probably wanted, but she had forgotten this, and ‘could not be sorry for her'. If only Sheila had not been bad tempered, Eva may have still been alive, and that is what it came down to. If people were just a bit more caring and understanding of others in their community, then maybe fewer bad things would happen in the world. So here, we have come back to ‘Community Responsibility'. No, Sheila was not responsible for Eva Smith, but she was responsible for her death.

In contrast to her father, Sheila felt very guilty for having Eva sacked. Sheila had done a just as bad thing as her father, but we feel less inclined to blame her because of her repentance. However, Arthur Birling dismissed Eva cruelly and never gave her a second thought, and Sheila's action was the result of a bad temper, and she regretted it immediately. She seems genuine when she says,

Sheila It's the only time I've ever done anything like that, and I'll never, never do it again to anybody. (Act 1, Page 4)

The reaction that Priestley wanted to get from his audience was for them to think about feeling sympathy towards others, and about taking responsibility for their own actions.

Gerald had then become involved, when Eva had been sacked from Milwards. In an attempt to start a new life, Eva had changed her name to Daisy Renton. After meeting her at the Palace Theatre Bar, where Daisy had been working as a prostitute, she had become his mistress, for the summer of 111. He had helped her, and given her a place to sleep. At first, Gerald had simply pitied Daisy. He had taken her for a meal, and this really put the message of community responsibility to the audience. However, this pity, turned into an affair, and now aside from helping a member of his community, Gerald was helping himself, and Priestly put this into the play, to show his audience that if we are too self-involved, then something bad, like Eva/Daisy killing herself, may come from something good, like Gerald trying to help her.

The next person to have played a part in Daisy Renton's life was Eric. He had got her pregnant, and then offered her stolen money, which she would not accept. Eric was very disturbed when he found out that she had committed suicide, because not only had she died, but so had his child. He was quick to admit to his faults, and hid nothing from the Inspector or his family. When Mr Birling finds out about Eric being the one to get her pregnant, he is more worried about what others will say or think when the word gets out. He is worried that he might loose his chance for a knighthood, and he does not give a thought to Eva/Daisy, or his family's feelings.

Mr Birlng You don't realize yet all you've done. Most of this is bound to come out. There'll be a public scandal. (Act, Page 57)

Eric Well, I don't care now. (Act, Page 57)

Mr Birling You! You don't seem to care about anything. But I care. I was almost certain for a knighthood in the next Honours List. (Act, Page 57)

What Mr Birling had said about Eric not caring about anything was shocking! He was completely wrong. He was the one who did not care about anything. Mr Birling seemed genuinely shocked that Eric could be so unsympathetic, but to the audience, Birling sounded absolutely ridiculous. How could he care about money and status at a time like this? This showed the difference between generations. Mr Birling generation did not care about the community or their responsibilities, but the younger generation were starting to.

The final thing to ‘push Daisy over the edge', was when she was refused help by Mrs Birling, at the Women's Charity Committee. She had gone there for help, and the mother of her baby's father, had turned her away. This is a big sign for the audience about Community Responsibility. Despite Mrs Birling actually being in an organization to help the community, she still could not help. The audience can see how stupid this is, that Mrs Birling's job was to help people, but when someone came to her for help, she wouldn't give it to them. Priestly's intentions, were for them to take this on board, and they should leave the theatre, thinking about the parts of the play which were impractical, and they could try and relate to them, and if they were in a situation that was silly, and may result in the unhappiness of others, they could change it.

When it turns out, that the Inspector had in fact been a fake, and that no girl had died, the older generation carried on as if nothing at all had happened.

Mr Birling Well, here's to us. Come on, Sheila, don't look like that. All over now. (Act, Page 71)

Mrs Birling; In the morning they'll be as amused as we are. (Act, Page 71)

However, the younger generation were a complete contrast to this.

Sheila You're forgetting one thing that I still can't forget. Everything we said had happened really happened. If it didn't end tragically, then that's lucky for us. But it might have done. (Act, Page 70)

Eric I don't see much nonsense about it when a girl kills herself. You lot may be letting yourselves out nicely, but I can't.

Sheila and Eric have now learnt the lesson. They know that they have done wrong, and they are ready to admit that. They have learnt one of the most important lessons of life, about helping others, and not being selfish, and unfortunately, it had to be learnt under those circumstances. Here, Priestley felt that hope lies with the younger generation, which was one of the reasons of making Sheila and Eric understand their responsibility in the end, and not the others. This was also shown very well in the National Production that I saw, because throughout the play, there was a small boy that was onstage. He was often with the Inspector, and I felt that the Inspector was playing the role of Priestly himself, so Priestley's feeling of the younger generation being the future, was shown here, was the boy was never far away from the Inspector.

The Inspector's final speech was the message of the play. It summed up everything that J B Priestley had wanted to say to the world.

Inspector We are members of one body. We are all responsible for each other. And I tell you that the time will soon come when, if man will not learn that lesson, then they will be taught it in fire and blood and anguish. (Act, Page 556)

This is the main speech of the play, which really spells it all out for the audience. It is telling the audience, what has just been told in the play, and it is like a final conclusion.

This brings us to the question, ‘Who is the Inspector?'. Although we never actually find out who he really is, the audience can make their own assumptions. Through clues in the play, I was led to believe that the Inspector was someone with very close connections to Eva Smith/Daisy Renton. The clues that I picked up on, were the following; his foreknowledge of the girl's death, and his intimate knowledge of her, despite never actually speaking to her. Also, the Inspector's telling Sheila that there is not reason that she should understand about him. He is assumed to be some sort of a time-traveller. When I saw the National Theatre Production of this play, the Inspector was dressed in period clothes from the late 140's. This suggests that he is someone from the future, but the only thing that the audience can do, is imagine.

The final part of the play, which expresses his ideas to the audience, is his method of dramatic irony again, at the end of the play. The family have just found out that it had all been a sham, and that no one had really died. Then, it is so ironic, that after finding out that they had not in fact killed a girl, and some of them are relived, while others are still very disturbed, that it has in fact all happened, just the way that the Inspector had told them.

This play has such a strong message, and J B priestly uses many ways to show us this, as I have explained above, and this message is likely to stay with the audience, for a long time to come.

Please note that this sample paper on An Inspector Calls: Community Responsibility is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on An Inspector Calls: Community Responsibility, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on An Inspector Calls: Community Responsibility will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

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QN 1

The Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) was established through the World Trade Organisation (WTO). The WTO's Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an attempt to narrow the gaps in the way intellectual property rights are protected around the world, and to bring them under common international rules . For developing countries, one of the most important outcomes of the Uruguay Round is the substantial strengthening of the rules based multilateral trading system and its extension to new areas of activity . To facilitate the implementation of the TRIPS Agreement, the Council for TRIPS concluded with WIPO an agreement on cooperation between WIPO and the WTO which provides cooperation in three main areas, namely notification of, access to and translation of national laws and regulations, implementation of procedures for the protection of national emblems, and technical cooperation .

A) Over the course of the past decade, intellectual property rights have come to play an increasingly prominent role in international policy discussions. This renewed interest has followed the growth of intangible goods in international trade and the potential abuse of intellectual property integral to the production of such goods . Both developed and developing countries have introduced legislative reform to tighten protection, and the importance of trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights has been formally recognised in the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations .

Intellectual property rights bear directly on the acquisition of technology as an important catalyst of economic growth . A few years after the development of the programmable computer in the mid 140s, questions were being asked as to how this new form of creative work, the computer program, should be protected against unauthorised copying. Initially, this was not a serious practical problem and the question was largely academic because computers were very expensive to buy, operate and maintain. They required an army of programmers and consumed vast quantities of electricity, being powered by thermionic values. There were very few computers in existence, and large governmental organisations and a small number of private companies were the only bodies with sufficient wealth to be able to justify the large expense associated with them. Another factor was that of cost effectiveness which made computers a viable propositions for only a handful of organisations .

The pervasiveness of computers has brought many problems relating to the legal protection of computer of software . Of course, whether a particular unauthorised use is deemed to be unfair may be a matter of opinion. Many persons and organisations creating computer software consider any use made of their software without permission to be unfair and that all unauthorised use ought to be made illegal. However, intellectual property law, including copyright law, is also concerned with striking a balance between completing interests and with limiting the owners' rights within reasonable bounds and, hence, absolute control and protection is not granted to owners .

Ideas and knowledge are an increasingly important part of trade. Most of the value of new medicines and other high technology products lies in the amount of invention, innovation, research, design and testing involved . Films, music recordings, books, computer software and on-line services are bought and sold because of the information and creativity they contain, not usually because of the plastic, metal or paper used to make them. The extent of protection and enforcement of these rights varied widely around the world; and as intellectual property became more important in trade, these differences became a source of tension in international economic relations .

New internationally-agreed trade rules for intellectual property rights were seen as a way to introduce more order and predicability, and for disputes to be settled more systematically . The 186-4 Uruguay Round achieved that. The WTO's Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an attempt to narrow the gaps in the way these rights are protected around the world, and to bring them under common international rules . When there are trade disputes over intellectual property rights, the WTO's dispute settlement system is now available

B) For developing countries, one of the most important outcomes of the Uruguay Round is the substantial strengthening of the rules based multilateral trading system and its extension to new areas of activity . Existing disciplines have been tightened in a number of areas including those involving the use of subsidies, countervailing and anti-dumping duties and safeguard measures. This will have important implications for developing countries

The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) offers potential benefits for developing countries by creating a framework that is conducive to technology transfer and foreign direct investment . Its main disciplines include non-discrimination (ie. most-favoured-nation and national treatment) and the equal application by all members of minimum standards of protection in relation to all categories of intellectual property rights.

The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) establishes minimum standards of protection for each category of intellectual property rights (IPRs). These standards must be available in the national law of each WTO Member and provided on the basis of most-favoured-nation and national treatment . They incorporate and extend to all WTO Members the substantive obligations of the main WIPO conventions, the Berne and Paris Conventions on respectively copyright and industrial property, with the addition of other obligations on matters where it was thought these Conventions could be complemented. This involves, in particular, setting standards on categories of IPRs where they were lacking (e.g. patents), setting disciplines relating to the enforcement of IPRs, and providing an effective dispute settlement mechanism.

A key feature of the Agreement is that Members are required to provide within their national laws effective procedures and remedies for the enforcement of rights to the holders of those rights, mainly private enterprises . It is, however, recognised that Members are not obliged to create special judicial system for the enforcement of IPRs.

Once the WTO is operational, the number of countries providing intellectual property protection will increase over time. Developed countries have one year to meet their obligations, developing countries have five years and least-developed countries have eleven years, with the possibility of an extension . Special transitional arrangements apply in the situation where a developing country does not presently provide patent protection in a particular area of technology, such as pharmaceutical's or agricultural chemicals.

In fact, adherence to the Paris and Berne Conventions is fairly widespread among developing countries. Many developing countries already provide minimum standards of intellectual property protection on a national treatment basis, although the scope of such protection varies significantly . Potential benefits for developing countries emerging from the Uruguay Round include a framework more conducive to domestic research efforts and to technology transfer and foreign direct investment.

There will, however, be additional administrative burdens of enforcing such rights (specifically dealt with under the TRIPS Agreement), potentially higher royalty payments and adjustment costs for industries which, in the absence of domestic legislation in the area, were producing goods that would be considered as counterfeit in the future . There will also be requirements relating to patents which may well mean an increase in prices of certain goods in some developing countries. Pharmaceutical and agricultural products present examples. These increases are expected to be small, and there are provisions in the Agreement itself to minimise any adverse implications for developing countries.

There are three parts to the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, Including Trade in Counterfeit Goods (TRIPs). Part I sets out general provisions and basic principles, notably a national-treatment commitment under which the nationals of other Members must be given treatment no less favourable than that accorded to a members own nationals with regard to the protection of intellectual property . It also contains a most-favoured-nation clause, a novelty in an international intellectual property agreement, under which any advantage a member gives to the nationals of another country must be extended immediately and unconditionally to the nationals of all other members, even if such treatment is more favourable than that which it gives to its own nationals.

C) The TRIPS agreement looks at different kinds of intellectual property rights and how to protect them. The purpose is to ensure that adequate standards of protection exist in all member countries . Here the starting point is the obligations of the main international agreements of the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) that already existed before the WTO was created, namely, the Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (patents, industrial designs, etc) and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (copyright) . Some areas are not covered by these conventions. In some cases, the standards of protection prescribed were thought inadequate. So the TRIPS agreement adds a significant number of new or higher standards.

To facilitate the implementation of the TRIPS Agreement, the Council for TRIPS concluded with WIPO an agreement on cooperation between WIPO and the WTO, which came into force on 1 January 16 . As explicitly set out in the Preamble to the TRIPS Agreement, the WTO desires a mutually supportive relationship with WIPO. The Agreement provides cooperation in three main areas, namely notification of, access to and translation of national laws and regulations, implementation of procedures for the protection of national emblems, and technical cooperation .

This process involves bringing their laws on copyright, patents, trademarks and other areas of intellectual property into line with the agreement, and providing for effective enforcement of these laws in order to deal with piracy, counterfeit goods and other forms of intellectual property infringements .

The aim is for WIPO and the WTO, together with the countries requesting assistance, and (where appropriate) donor countries, to maximise use of available resources by improved planning and coordination of technical cooperation activities . The forms of technical cooperation that are available include assistance in preparing legislation, training, institution-building, and modernising intellectual property systems and enforcement.

The task of conforming with the TRIPS Agreement is seen as a challenge for developing countries because of the complexities of intellectual property laws and their enforcement. But it also provides an opportunity to use intellectual property protection to accelerate economic, social and cultural development .

At the same time, the two organisations stress that assistance given to other countriesin particular least developed countries, which do not have to meet the year-000 deadlinewill not suffer. The WTO and WIPO renew their commitment to continue to provide technical cooperation to these countries .

The joint initiative will build on the existing cooperation between the two organisations, which has been established since the signing of the WIPO-WTO Agreement in 15 . This provides, among other things, for cooperation in providing legal technical assistance and technical cooperation related to the TRIPS Agreement for developing country members of either of the two organisations.

The 1-member WTO came into being on 1 January 15, at the same time as the TRIPS and other WTO agreements . Developed countries had to conform with the TRIPS provisions by 1 January 16. Developing countries are given an extra four years, until 1 January 000, to comply . Least developed countries have a longer transition period that lasts, in general, until 1 January 006.

The WTO's TRIPS Agreement specifies minimum standards of protection for each of the main categories of intellectual property, building on the main WIPO conventions. It also deals with the effective enforcement of intellectual property rights .

WIPO, which has 171 members, is responsible for international cooperation in promoting intellectual property protection around the world. In particular, it looks after various international conventions, such as the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (patents, industrial designs, etc) and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (copyright) .

The World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) and World Trade Organisation (WTO) have launched a new initiative recently, 14 June 001, to help least-developed countries maximise the benefits of intellectual property protection .

At the ceremony held to mark the launch, Dr. Kamil Idris, Director General of WIPO, stated that this joint initiative was simply an expression of commitment to least-developed countries . From integration to participation, then to give these countries national ownership of intellectual property protection, he stressed, was crucial in assisting these countries. It was emphasised that intellectual property was a tool for technological advancement, economic growth and wealth creation for all nations, especially for least-developed countries.

Ambassadors representing least-developed countries welcomed the initiative as further evidence that both organisations are increasingly committed to helping the worlds poorest countries .

The joint initiative builds on existing cooperation between WIPO and WTO and on each organisation's own technical assistance programs . It is also similar to a joint WIPO-WTO project launched in 18 to help all developing countries, particularly those that are not least developed, which had to comply with the TRIPS Agreement by 000.

The technical assistance available under the joint initiative includes cooperation with preparing legislation, training, institution-building, modernising intellectual property systems and enforcement . Of the 4 countries defined by the UN as least developed, 0 are members of the WTO (another six are negotiating WTO membership) and 41 are members of WIPO. All least-developed countries can participate in the technical assistance offered; they do not need to be WIPO or WTO members.

The joint initiative envisages assistance in two phases. In the first phase, two regional workshops will be organised in 00, one for sub-Saharan Africa and Haiti, and the other for the Asia-Pacific region . Officials from these countries will be briefed on the basic concepts, principles and obligations of the TRIPS Agreement. They will also be briefed on the challenges of implementing the agreement. In the second phase, assistance provided will focus on action plans specific to individual countries .

Least-developed countries need a considerable amount of assistance in intellectual property . This new initiative will ensure the most effective use of available resources. It will also ensure technical assistance activities are efficiently planned and closely coordinated between the two organisations.

The Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) was established through the World Trade Organisation (WTO). The WTO's Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an attempt to narrow the gaps in the way intellectual property rights are protected around the world, and to bring them under common international rules . For developing countries, one of the most important outcomes of the Uruguay Round is the substantial strengthening of the rules based multilateral trading system and its extension to new areas of activity . To facilitate the implementation of the TRIPS Agreement, the Council for TRIPS concluded with WIPO an agreement on cooperation between WIPO and the WTO which provides cooperation in three main areas, namely notification of, access to and translation of national laws and regulations, implementation of procedures for the protection of national emblems, and technical cooperation .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

· Australia. Dept. of Foreign Affairs and Trade. (14). Marrakesh Agreement establishing the World Trade Organization (WTO Agreement), Canberra Australian Government Publishing Service, 15.

· Bacchetta, M, (18). Electronic commerce and the role of the WTO /... [et al.] Geneva, Switzerland. WTO Publications

· Correa, C, M, (1). Intellectual property rights, the WTO, and developing countries the TRIPS agreement and policy options. New York Zed Books

· Das, B, L (18). An introduction to the WTO agreements. Malaysia Third World Network

· Das, B, L, (18) The WTO agreements deficiencies, imbalances and required changes London Zed,

· Gallagher, P, (000) Guide to the WTO and developing countries. Boston, MA Kluwer Law International

· Islam, M, R, (1). International trade law. Pyrmont, N.S.W. LBC Information Services

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Management concepts

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A work group or team provides the forum within which people interact, develop relationships and a common approach and goals emerge. Before a team is able to fulfil its tasks it must go through the stages of development where there tasks will be completed. There Tuckman (165) believed in four stages of team development, forming storming, norming and performing. Although these stages are clearly defined by Tuckman(165) and Dwyer (001) there is no clear definition of these steps and the process can sometimes find itself being repeated. However the steps that all teams must go through in order future develop in the forming stage. If the correct management style is implemented in these stages than there can be increase in the groups overall efficiency and performance. There are many suggested managerial styles however this essay will focus on dominating, obliging, integrating and avoiding.

This stage occurs when a team is established and the team members begin to interact. While this stage is characterized by uncertainty relating to teams purpose, structure and leadership, the members of this team find themselves testing there behaviour to see what is acceptable. This can be done on a conscience or unconscious level where the team members may find themselves doing this process instinctively rather than premeditated. This will occur in a highly structured team with clear rules laid down within this team. Within a highly structured team members will also begin to establish the real purpose of the team. Often this real purpose of the team will differ from its apparent purpose. In a team that does not follow this highly structured team style, members will place great importance on attaching to the groups leader as members look for the support, guidance and direction. Although there are two types of teams, highly structured and laissez-faire, both will place a strong premium on setting out task responsibility and deadlines (Barrick & Mount, 11). In this early stage of development, there is also a clear lack of openness or willingness to divulge or reveal emotions between team members.

This is likely to be caused by the umbrella or shield phenomenon which is positively related to the forming stage, but it may be exasperated by the cultural context or by the organisation and its support for or discouragement of certain attitudes and behaviours(Hersey & Blanchard, 16). It is also important during this forming stage that these initial steps of a team's development are dealt with sensitively. With this concept of the forming stage of team development, it has been widely argued that a collaborative style of management as well as an avoiding style of management style is required during the first phase. This is because neither style on their own can be appropriately adapted to the characteristics that a team would display in the forming stage and therefore does not produce the full potential of a team that is required during this very important phase(Goldberg,1).

During the forming stage of a team there are two management style that are reflected, integrative and avoiding styles of management. The integrative style that is adopted by various managers is characterized by a high concern for both oneself and others. The integration style requires people to work together, mutually solve problems and find solutions that are satisfactory to all members. Assertiveness is a skill required in the integrative style of management because individuals need to stand up for there needs while at the same time respecting other team members

The avoiding management style is associated with a low concern for oneself as well as for the other party involved in this early stage(Maes & Weldy 17). The avoiding style would not be frequently preferred by those high in moral development because it serves to prolong an unsatisfactory situation however, individual at the lower stages of moral development would implement the avoiding style during the forming stage of a team development to shelter the individuals emotions and feelings from the other team members (Harris & Moran, 16). As this management style would not be the dominant or preferred style of management to be used, it would only be needed in conjunction with parts of the forming stage where members avoid trying to divulge large extent of their personalities and emotions or where there is a lack of honesty(Ford & Ford, 15). As a manager's job is varied and complex during theses early stages managers need to switch between these suggested managerial styles to create a balance for team members, so that they can flourish and move into what is known as the storming stage of development.

A team experiences conflict throughout all the stages of team development but when conflict initially emerges the group has reached the storming stage(Wilke & Meertens 14). Conflict can arise due to the style of leadership that the team has developed, the groups goals or the way they are being achieved or how individuals perform or feel in the team (Hargie & Dickenson,1). Group characteristics, traits or personalities can also cause conflict where inclusion or exclusion of an individual can occur leading to some members being segregated from the team decision- making process. Although group rules can be laid out in a highly structured team during the forming stage, personal agendas or a lack of commitment to the groups goals can also arise during the storming stage. The storming occurs in a team because positions in the team emerge and there may be an element of conflict as vie for the leadership. This may be due partly to the resistance to the control that the team imposes on individuality (Bass, 185).

There may be differences of opinion and difficulties may affect relationships. Interest or splinter group (Vroom & Yetton, 17) may form and there is a great deal of micro political activity. If the team is required to complete a complex or strenuous task a greater chance of ill feeling and arguments surfacing. It is during this storming stage that teams decide how they will operate (Barrick & Mount, 18). It is done by covert communication and the major issues that are explored are concerned with control, including questions about the way in which control is exercised and the effect it has on the team. It is a paramount that these issues are addressed, since successful resolution of the differences may determine whether the team is able to progress to a more advanced stage of development. Those team members who are skilled in micro political activities tend to be highly active during this phase. These members will develop relationships with influential people, while others develop coalitions on the basis that there is strength in numbers. Some team members will try to make themselves indispensable by choosing those activities or responsibilities that are critical to the team.

As a consequence the organisational realm or organisational underworld becomes more active in this phase, and particularly in more permanent and high profile teams due to the conflicting attitudes that surface during the storming stage(Dwyer 001). One phase of the storming stage focuses on the leadership of the team and suggests that a dominant or assertive style of person will emerge and take charge therefore a dominant style of management is necessary to take control and to ensure that there is the appropriate level of focus and performance that will be needed in the later stages of development(Goldberg, 1).

The dominant style involves a high concern for oneself and low concern for the other party involved during this conflicting stage of the team development it has been identified with a win or lose orientation or with forcing behaviour to wins ones position.. When the power relationships within the group is asymmetrical, a more powerful party may impose its will regardless of what is right. (Harris & Moran 16). Regardless of this power balance, the dominating-style behaviours such as intimidation, the use of power or force are associated with this storming stage. Dominating may resolve a matter sooner rather than later but it is more likely to be a one-sided, short-sighted, and short-lived solution. However this one stage of management would not be the one suitable style during the storming stage as it is widely argued and viewed that if there is going to be a dominating style of management then a compromising managerial style is also required to create a balance and keep performance levels up.

As performance will suffer if ill-feelings occur amongst group members as a result of the storming stage and dominate style a second style is required. A compromising style of management, which is characterized by moderate concern for oneself and for other team members, is sometimes ethically appropriate. A team member who is correct in his/her decisions but happens to be the weaker Party to a conflict may have little choice in the final decision (Bass, 185.). Ideally, disputants would eschew compromise in favour of integration (Maes & Weldy, 17). However an integrative solution cannot always be found.

When there is a strong sense of group identity and camaraderie and the group demonstrates cohesiveness the team has reached the norming stage. As the group members interact with one another, similarities and differences arise and members begin to match their capabilities with aspects of the tasks at hand. In this stage relationships between group members emerge as group norms or acceptable behavior, attitudes, work patterns and related behaviors arise. This is what is known as norms, which are acceptable standards that are shared by the team members. Norms generally relate to levels of effort and performance. This is because the group must develop a common approach to tasks and the idea of shared goals is present at the development of working goals.

Members are often supportive of other members and the group becomes cohesive and even tolerant of one another's differences. This is in order to deal with problem solving and decision making, and to verify any goals that were put in place, as members need to express themselves through this stage. The norming stage is also used to develop and identify the necessary actions and activities needed to achieve the goals. There is also a development or extension of the skills of the necessary tasks involved in obtaining the goals and to help with the later stage of performing and therefore an obliging management style is most appropriate in enhancing group process. The norming stage is complete when the group's structure solidifies and the group has assimilated a common set of expectations of what defines correct members behavior

With this concept of the norming stage, it is considered that an obliging style of management is the most appropriate to enhance the group as the norming stage is a crucial stage, as groups become cohesive and begin to work on common goals. A management style that does not hinder or damage the cohesiveness of the group is required. An obliging managerial style involves low concern of self and high concern for other members and is most suitable in the norming stage as it is able to improve the efficiency and performance levels of the team. Wilke (Group Communication, 14) believes that there can be an increase in overall group productivity and group potential if the correct management style is put into place in early phases of group development and when there is a strong sense of group identity. He believes that when manager present their consideration and decisions and invite their subordinate to pose question and to consider all members in this stage that the group can become superior. Barrick & Mount (11) suggest that there is a positive relationship between participative decision making and outcomes concerning performance among managers and subordinates.

When the groups structure is fully functional and accepted and is actually achieving or completing the task at hand, then the team has moved into what is known as the performing stage (Ford & Ford, 15). In this stage the team can be characterized as focusing on its productivity, as the efforts of the group are directed towards goal attainment and

performance. Interdependence of team members occurs in this stage as team members focus on problem solving and tasking to achieve the goal of the team, as the members enact the roles they have accepted. Cooperation is the word of the day at this level of team performance as there is an acceptance of delegated tasks by the team members. At this advanced stage of team development, there is consideration for both individual and team performance, this creates an involvement in decision making by members(Byrd, 17). This heightened sense of both individual and team contribution does not occur at the other three levels of team development, as individuals can be seen as anti-team development by members of the team. This advanced stage of development, fosters the understanding and awareness that team orientated(Vroom & Yetton, 17). As the team performs the task, whilst still maintaining a balance between working and maintaining interpersonal relationships within the group. The basic structure of the group or team is no longer an issue by this stage but has become a mechanism for accomplishing the purpose of the group.

In the performing stage there is an acceptance of tasks and effective interpersonal relationship which all contribute to the integrative style of management. Hersey ( Hersey, P & Blachard, K.H) argue that the integrative management style is concerned with the idea of reaching a solution acceptable to both parties and is most useful when there is openness among group members and when there is exchanging of information. This managerial style enhances team performance as it is able to harness the phases of performing without hindering the process. Wilke (Group Communication, 14) argues that "integrating management style enhances group performance when there is an increase in cooperation and acceptance among group members and when the group is achieving at its maximum. Managers are able to influence other members to implement high performance among the group."

Tuckmans model simply helps us to understand that teams are dynamic, and it draws attention to some of the complications that might occur during the team's life. Robbins notes that teams do not always proceed clearly from one stage to the next. In fact several stages may be going on simultaneously. Evidence suggest that if teams implement management styles that correlate to the teams stage of development, there can be a positive increase in the teams overall efficiency and performance.

Please note that this sample paper on management concepts is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on management concepts, we are here to assist you. Your paper on management concepts will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

History of computers

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Contents page

Page no. Titles

1 Contents

Summary

Introduction

In The Beginning

6 Introduction Of Electricity And The Generations That Follows

6 First-Generation Computers

7 Second-Generation Computers

8 Third-Generation Computers

8 Fourth-Generation Computers

11 Fifth-Generation (present and beyond)

1 Conclusion

1 Bibliography

Summary

Computers where did they come from and where are they going? These are the questions that hopefully will be answered. ooo years ago the need to hold calculations on a machine was solved with the abacus. This machine was purely used to calculate simple sums. The need to find easier and more efficient methods of calculating simple and more complicated equations became greater and eventually technology allowed the beginning of computer development. The report takes us through from the beginning through all five generations and looks into the future. No body knows what the future holds for human and computer relations but understanding where they came from is just as important as looking into the future.

Introduction

Modern life would not be what it is without computers. For better or worse computers are parts of everything in today's society. Today's machines do much more than compute equations shop scanners automatically calculate the bill while also keeping a precise inventory of stock; and cash machines let us do all our banking transactions almost any where in the world. Where did all this technology come from and will it ever stop. To understand the machines of today we need to look at where did it start and the development from then to now.

The impact on every day life that computers have is very much taken for granted. To understand what life would be like without computers, we need to understand what computers actually did for us throughout its development. If computers were not helpful to us would the extreme development that occurred actually happen?

In the beginning

5000 years ago, the first computer like machine was the abacus. This system allows the user to perform calculations using a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack. Early traders used the abacus to keep trading transactions. It took nearly twelve centuries for the next significant advance into computing.

In 164, an 18-year-old son of a tax collector called Blaise Pascal invented a rectangular box called the Pascaline or the Numerical Wheel Calculator. This machine used a system of eight movable dials, which gave it ability to reach numbers of eight figures long. The dials worked on a base of ten, when the first dial reached ten it would move the second dial once and so on. The only floor in the design was that it was limited to addition only.

In 164, a German mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhem Von Leibniz improved Blaises designs of the pascaline by creating a machine that could not only add but it could multiply as well. It used a system of dials and gears. However it was not until 180 when mechanical calculators gained widespread use. A French man called Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar invented a machine that could perform the four basic mathematical functions. It was called the Arithometer, many people used it widely and it did not become obsolete until the First World War. Although many inventors refined the arithometer, its first design helped define the age of mechanical computers.

The real beginning to computers, as we know them, was in the mind of an English maths professor called Charles Babbage. Babbage frustrated by the many errors he found while examining calculations for the Royal Astronomical Society, Babbage declared "I whish to god these calculations had been performed by steam". By 181 Babbage had noticed that machines were best at performing tasks repeatedly without any mistakes. The production of maths tables, often required simple repetition of steps, the only problem Babbage had to overcome was simply to apply this ability to a machine. It wasn't until 18 when Babbage designed a machine to perform differential equations, it was called the Difference Engine. It was powered by steam and it was the size of a locomotive. The machine would have a stored program and could perform calculations while printing the results automatically. After 10 years of work on the Difference Engine, Babbage was inspired to begin work on the first general purpose computer, which he called the Analytical Engine. Babbage's assistant, daughter of the English poet Lord Byron, was instrumental to the design. Lady Lovelace's understanding of the machine helped her to create the instruction routines that would be fed into the computer, this made her the first female computer programmer. In the 180s the U.S defence department called the programming language ADA in her honour.

Babbages steam-powered machine, although ultimately never constructed, may seem primitive but it outlined the basic elements of modern general-purpose computers of today.

In 188, an American inventor Herman Hollerith applied most of the concepts of Babbages machine. His first task was to find a more efficient way to compute the U.S census. The previous census in 1880 took nearly seven years to count and with the ever-growing population, the bureau feared it would take over ten years to count the latest census. Unlike Babbage's idea of instructing the machine with perforated cards, Hollerith used the cards as a method of storing the information, which would then be fed into a machine that compiled his results mechanically. As many as 80 variables could be stored on one card, so instead of the calculated ten years to finish the U.S census, Holleriths machine did it in a staggering six weeks.

Hollerith brought his punch card reader into the business world, founding the Tabulating Machine Company in 186, which later became International Business Machines (I.B.M) in 14 after a series of merges. Businesses and the government for data processing up until the 160s used Hollerith's punch cards.

In the years following, several engineers made other significant advances; one of the more significant developments was by Vannevar Bush. Bush developed a calculator for solving differential equations in 11. The machine could solve these complex problems, which for years had baffled mathematicians, however the machine was massive with hundreds of gears and shafts. These were required to represent the numbers and their relationships with each other.

A professor at Iowa State University, John V. Antanasoft and his graduate student Clifford Berry envisioned an all-electric computer that applied Boolean algebra to computer circuitry.

Antanasoft's approach was based on the mid 1-cetury work of George Boole who worked out that the binary system could be used with algebra. Boole stated that any equation could be stated as either true or false. Using this concept in an electronic form simply means the results will be either on of off. By 140 they had developed the first all electric computer, however lack of funding meant that their project was overshadowed by similar developments by other scientists.

Introduction Of Electricity And The Generations That Follow.

First generation

With the run up to the Second World War, governments realised how important computers could be and begun heavy development. The idea was to exploit their potential strategic importance. The first major development came from a German engineer in 141. His name was Konrad Zuse. Zuse developed a computer that helped design German airplanes and missiles. Two years later the allied forces developed a code-braking computer called Colossus, this was a major break through as it could break all codes the Germans used. The Colossus however did not make much of an impact on the general development of computers, primarily it was not a general-purpose computer, and also its existence was top secret until decades after the war.

In 144 Howard H. Aiken who at the time worked with I.B.M, succeeded in producing an all-electronic calculator. The one drawback was its size, it was about half the length of a football field and contained over 500 miles of wiring. The mark 1 as it was known could perform basic arithmetic as well as more complex equations. However not just its size was a problem, it also was very slow, even most basic problems would take between three to five seconds.

The U.S government joined forces with Pennsylvania University to develop a computer called ENIAC. The machine consisted of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and over 5 million soldered joints. The computer was massive and the electric power it consumed was just as big. Unlike its predecessors (colossus and Mark 1) the ENIAC was a general-purpose computer, it was also 1000 times faster than the Mark 1.

In 145 Von Neumann designed the EDVAC which had a memory that could hold both a stored program as well as data. This allowed the computer to be stopped at any time and resume again when convenient. The key to his invention was the central processing unit, which allowed all functions to be coordinated through one single source.

151 saw the introduction of the ‘UNIVAC 1', which became the first commercially available computer to take advantage of the advances so far. The U.S census Bureau and General Electric owned UNIVAC's. The first impressive achievement the machine had was predicting the winner of 15 presidential election, where Dwight D. Eisenhower came to power.

The first generation computers were categorised by the fact most was limited to there one and only program. These machines were not versatile and they were very slow. The use of the vacuum tubes caused these machines to be gigantic.

Second-generation machines

By 148, computer development had drastically changed and it was the transistor that was responsible for this. These revolutionary components were designed to replace the cumbersome vacuum tubes. As a result of the transistor, computers and other electronic equipment reduced in size dramatically. The advances in magnetic-core memory, combined with the transistors meant the second generation computers were smaller, faster, and more reliable and more energy efficient.

The first machines to take advantage of this technology were developed for atomic energy laboratories. The downfall with these machines was they were too costly and far too powerful for general use in the business sector.

Through the 160s, there were a number of successful nd generation computers used in businesses, universities and the government from companies such as Honey Well and I.B.M. These computers contained everything we associate with today's computers printer, disc storage and memory. The I.B.M. 1401 was the real beginning for a general-purpose computer in the commercial world.

The nd Gen. Computers gave birth to completely new careers such as programmers, analysts and computer system experts. These machines are also responsible for the initiation of the software industry.

Third generation computers

The transition from vacuum tubes to transistors was clearly a great improvement, however transistor generated a great deal of heat which in time damaged other components. The introduction of quarts rock eliminated this problem. In 158 an engineer called Jack Kilby developed the integrated circuit (IC). The IC combined three electronic components on a small silicon disc, which was made of quartz. With further development more components were added on to a single chip, these were called semiconductors.

Fourth generation computers

After Kilbys design of the integrated circuit, there was only one direction for the development, which was smaller. By the 180s IC's had been designed to hold millions of components on them, this ability of fitting so many components on something the size of a twenty pence piece brought not only the size of the computer but the price as well. The machines power, efficiency and reliability also improved with these new designs. Intel in 171 had designed a chip that improved on the IC even further, the chip held all the computer components like central processing unit; memory; and input output controls. The main advantage to this chip was that it could be used for any application, not like its predecessors that differed for different uses. These new chips were mass-produced and then programmed for use in allsorts of different household items, such as microwaves, televisions and also electronic fuel systems in cars.

This power in such small packages meant that the computers were not only accessible to big businesses but to the general public as well. These user friendly computers came with word processing and spread sheet programs, however the appearance of computer games like pack man combined with the home video game systems like the Atari 600, ignited the publics interest for more sophisticated and programmable home computers.

181 saw I.B.M. release its first personal computer (P.C), the advantages with these machines were that they were small and affordable enough to be used in schools, offices and at home. When the machines were released, that year I.B.M. sold only million. The year following the amount of machines had more than doubled to over 5.5 million. I.B.M. made a great success out of the P.C, after 10 years of being on the market there were more than 65 million machines worldwide. Development of these machines did not stop there, the computers became more powerful and even smaller. From desktop size these machines progressed to laptop computers (which could fit into a briefcase), then to palmtop computers (able to fit into a breast pocket). IBM's main rival was Apple Mackintosh, which in the early years of this development offered an operating system, which allowed the user to move screen icons instead of typing instructions. Users controlled the screen cursor by using a device called a mouse. The device mimicked the exact movements of the users hand and portrayed it on to the computer screen.

Computers became widespread in most workplaces and as they were getting more powerful businesses started using networks. Networks are many computers linked up to each other, this system allows the computer to use a combined shared memory, software, information and the ability to communicate with each other. This was found to be more advantageous than one large mainframe computer sharing it vast memory. The first method of a network is called local area network (L.A.N), this is set up with direct wiring i.e. an office with multiple computers all linked up to each other. The second method of networks is called the World Wide Web. This system uses telephone lines and any computer connected to a phone line has the ability to be on this global network. This network is called the Internet and allows any user to collect huge amounts of information from any corner of the world. One of the most popular uses of the Internet, is the ability to send another user a message, this is called E-mail. The internet system is becoming more useful in every day life as well, such as buying groceries from a supermarket, the user logs onto the supermarket address chooses what he or she wants, pays for it using a credit card and receive the goods two days later on the door step of the users home.

Fifth Generation (present and beyond)

There is no real definition of this generation because it is still in its infancy. The likes of HAL000 from Arthur C. Clarke's novel, 001 A Space Odyssey, was capable of every function which is currently envisioned for future fifth generation machines. Even though Hall000 was completely fiction, many of its said functions are not. Recently computers have been designed to accept spoken word instructions (voice recognition), some machines also have some ability to translate some foreign languages. This feat may seem very basic, however human understanding relies mainly on the context and meaning in the sentences, it is not just simple translation of words. Other huge advances in the fifth generation computers of today are parallel processing, which replaces Von Neumann's single processing unit with a design that joins many CPU's together. The other main advance is the use of superconductors, which enables electricity to flow with little or no resistance greatly improving the speed of information flow. There is a sign of much more advanced computers, such as a machine that helps diagnose illnesses using problem-solving steps from the basic information it is fed. However this technology will take several years until development allows it to be used worldwide.

Conclusion

The development of computers started thousands of years ago, with the abacus, it has not stopped developing even to the present day. The development speed was much greater when electricity was introduced to what were then simple problem solving machines. Development of today is so advanced that once a machine is brought within 4 to 6 months most of the hardware and software either needs updating or is completely obsolete. There are that many different companies producing these computers it is in there advantage to hold back there new designs as much as possible so Joe Bloggs will buy his up to date computer and later that year he will have to buy an updated piece of hardware from that same company to keep his PC up to date.

In the future it could be anyone's guess how far computers develop, they will certainly have a great effect on the general work place bringing more atomised systems into factories and other businesses.

Bibliography

Address Date Title

www.intel.com/pressroom 1/10/00 The History Of Intel

www.fht-esslingen.de/studentisches 1/10/00 The History Computers

www.digitalcentury.com 4/0/00 Computers

www.islandnet.com 4/0/00 Chronology of P.C.s

www.ciof.org/reports-rls.htm 10/06/001 Computers In Our Future

www.quuxuum.org/~evan/bgnw.html 7/10/00 Bill Gates Net Worth

www.microsoft.com/museum 7/10/00 Microsoft Museum

www.microsoft.com/billgates 1/10/00 Bill Gates' Web Site

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Health Sciences Libraries New Books: November 2003

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Health Sciences Libraries New Books November 00

Imaging atlas of human anatomy / Jamie Weir, Peter H. Abrahams ; with four contributors, Anna-Maria Belli ... [et al.]. Edinburgh Mosby, 00. QS 17 W45i 00. HL Reserve Book. QL Reserve Books.

Neuroanatomy an atlas of structures, sections, and systems / Duane E. Haines ; special contributions by John A. Lancon ; illustrator, M.P. Schenk ; photographer, G.W. Armstrong. Philadelphia Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, c004. WL 17 H15n 004. HL Reserve Books. QL Reserve Books.

USMLE road map. Gross anatomy / James S. White. New York Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill Medical Pub., c00. QS 18. W585u 00. HL Reserve Book. QL Reserve Books.

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES / PSYCHIATRY / CREATIVE ART THERAPY

Action therapy with families and groups using creative arts improvisation in clinical practice / edited by Daniel J. Wiener and Linda K. Oxford. Washington, D.C. American Psychological Association, c00. WM 450 A188 00. HL New Books.

The American Psychiatry Publishing textbook of child and adolescent psychiatry / edited by Jerry M. Wiener, Mina K. Dulcan. Washington, DC American Psychiatric Pub., c004. WS 50 T55 004. HL New Books.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder a clinical guide to diagnosis and treatment for health and mental health professionals / Larry B. Silver. Washington, DC American Psychiatric Pub., c004. WS 50.8 .A8 S587a 004. HL New Books.

Brief strategic family therapy for adolescent drug abuse / Jose Szapocznik, Olga Hervis, Seth Schwartz. Bethesda, Md. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 00. WM 70 S5b 00. HL New Books. MO Book Collection.

Caring for patients from different cultures / Geri-Ann Galanti. Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press, c004. WY 87 G146c 004. HL Reserve Books. QL Reserve Books.

Common purpose strengthening families and neighborhoods to rebuild America / Lisbeth B. Schorr. New York Anchor Books, Doubleday, 17. HV 1 S74c 17. HL Book Collection.

Deconstructing the school-to-prison pipeline / Johanna Wald, Daniel, J. Losen, issue editors. San Francisco Jossey-Bass, c00. NEW DIRECT YOUTH DEV NO. 00. HL Journals.

Drug use among racial/ethnic minorities. Bethesda, Md. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Division of Epidemiology, Services and Prevention Research, 00. WM 70 D74 00. HL Reference . MO Book Collection.

Field guide to psychiatric assessment and treatment / Mark S. Bauer. Philadelphia Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, c00. WM 141 B44f 00. MO New Book Shelf.

Handbook of clinical sexuality for mental health professionals / Stephen B. Levine, editor ; Candace B. Risen, Stanley E. Althof, associate editors. New York Brunner-Routledge, 00. WM 611 H5 00. HL New Books.

Neurology of cognitive and behavioral disorders / [editors], Orrin Devinsky, Mark DEsposito. Oxford ; New York Oxford University Press, 004. WL 10.5 N45 004. MO New Book Shelf.

SPSS [electronic resource]. Upper Saddle River, N.J. Prentice-Hall ; Chicago SPSS, c00. HA 6 S771 00. HL AV Reserve.

Youth facing threat and terror supporting preparedness and resilience / Robert D. Macy, Susanna Barry, Gil G. Noam, issue editors. San Francisco Jossey-Bass, 00. NEW DIRECT YOUTH DEV NO.8 00. HL Journals.

BIOCHEMISTRY

Copper-containing proteins / edited by Joan Selverstone Valentine, Edith Butler Gralla. San Diego Academic Press, c00. ADV PROTEIN CHEM V.60 00. HL Journals.

Proteome characterization and proteomics / edited by Richard D. Smith, Timothy D. Veenstra. San Diego, Calif. ; London Academic, 00. ADV PROTEIN CHEM V.65 00. HL Journals.

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM / DISEASES

Heart failure a companion to Braunwalds Heart disease / [edited by] Douglas L. Mann. Philadelphia Saunders, c004. WG 00 H464 001 Comp.M. HL Reserve Books.

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia / edited by Theodore E. Warkentin, Andreas Greinacher. New York Dekker, c001. WH 00 H5 001. HL New Books. MO Book Collection.

DERMATOLOGY

Clinical dermatology / Thomas P. Habif. St. Louis, Mo. London Mosby, 004. WR 17 H116c 004. HL Reserve Book. MO Reserve Books. QL Reserve Books.

Fitzpatricks dermatology in general medicine. New York McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division, c00. WR 100 D45 00. HL Reserve Book.

EMERGENCY MEDICINE

Emergency medicine a comprehensive study guide / editor-in-chief, Judith E. Tintinalli ; co-editors, Gabor D. Kelen, J. Stephan Stapczynski. New York McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division, c004. WB 105 E55 004. HL Reserve Book. QL Reserve Books.

Rosen and Barkins 5 minute emergency medicine consult / [edited by] Jeffrey Schaider ... [et al.]. Philadelphia Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, c00. WB Z5 00. HL Reserve Books.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM / DISEASES

Mosbys color atlas and text of diabetes and endocrinology / Paul Belchetz, Peter J. Hammond. Edinburgh ; New York Mosby, 00. WK 140 B47m 00. HL New Books.

EPIDEMIOLOGY

Drug use among racial/ethnic minorities. Bethesda, Md. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Division of Epidemiology, Services and Prevention Research, 00. WM 70 D74 00. HL Reference . MO Book Collection.

Primer of epidemiology / Gary D. Friedman. New York McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division, c004. WA 105 F11p 004. HL Reserve Books.

ETHICS

Ethical issues in modern medicine / [edited by] John D. Arras, Bonnie Steinbock. Mountain View, Calif. Mayfield Pub., c1. W 50 E86 1. HL Reserve Book.

GENETICS

Tumor prevention and genetics / H.-J. Senn, R. Morant (eds.). Berlin ; New York Springer, c00. RECENT RESULTS CANCER RES V.16 00. MO Journals.

GERIATRICS

Essentials of clinical geriatrics / Robert L. Kane, Joseph G. Ouslander, Itamar B. Abrass. New York McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division, c004. WT 100 K16e 004. HL Reserve Books. QL Reserve Books.

HEALTH SERVICES / HOSPITALS

Delivering health care in America a systems approach / Leiyu Shi, Douglas A. Singh. Boston Jones and Bartlett, c004. W 84 AA1 S51d 004. HL New Books.

HIPAA plain & simple a compliance guide for healthcare professionals / Carolyn P. Hartley, Edward D. Jones III ; foreword by Louis W. Sullivan. [Chicago] AMA Press, c004. WX 17 Hh 004. HL New Books. MO New Book Shelf.

HEMATOLOGY

Atlas of hematology / Shauna C. Anderson, Keila Poulsen. Philadelphia Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 00. WH 17 A54a 00. HL New Books.

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia / edited by Theodore E. Warkentin, Andreas Greinacher. New York Dekker, c001. WH 00 H5 001. HL New Books. MO Book Collection.

INFECTIOUS DISEASES

AIDS the biological basis / I. Edward Alcamo. Sudbury, Mass. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, c00. WC 50 A46a 00. HL New Books.

Krugmans infectious diseases of children. Philadelphia, Pa. Mosby, c004. WC 100 I4186 004. HL Reserve Books.

MEDICAL EDUCATION

Appleton & Lange outline review USMLE step / Joel S. Goldberg. New York Appleton & Lange Reviews/McGraw-Hill, c004. W 18. A644i 004. MO Reserve Books.

Appleton & Lange outline review USMLE step / [edited by] Joel S. Goldberg. New York Appleton & Lange Reviews/McGraw-Hill, c004. W 18. A644i 004. MO Reserve Books.

Building a medical vocabulary with Spanish translations / Peggy C. Leonard. Philadelphia Saunders, c001. W 15 L581b 001. HL Book Collection.

Examkrackers 101 passages in MCAT verbal reasoning / [by David Orsay]. [Bogota], N.J. Osote Pub., c00. W 18. O76e 00. HL Reserve Book.

First aid for the match insider advice from students and residency directors / Tao Le, Vikas Bhushan, Chirag Amin. New York London McGraw-Hill, 004. W 0 L4f 004. HL Reserve Book.

How to excel in medical school / Norma Susswein Saks, Mark Ari Saks. Alexandria, Va. J&S Pub., c00. W 18. S1585h 00. HL Reserve Books.

MKSAP 1 medical knowledge self-assessment program / American College of Physicians ; Paul E. Epstein, editor in chief. Philadelphia American College of Physicians, c00- WB 18. M685 00. HL Reserve Books. MO Reserve Books.

Pre Test clinical vignettes for the USMLE step PreTest self-assessment and review. New York McGraw-Hill Medical Pub. Division, c004. W 18. C641 004. HL Reserve Book.

USMLE road map. Gross anatomy / James S. White. New York Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill Medical Pub., c00. QS 18. W585u 00. HL Reserve Book. QL Reserve Books.

MEDICINE

Caring for patients from different cultures / Geri-Ann Galanti. Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press, c004. WY 87 G146c 004. HL Reserve Books. QL Reserve Books.

Color atlas & text of clinical medicine / Charles D. Forbes, William F. Jackson. London Mosby, 00. WB 17 F6c 00. MO Reserve Books.

Ethical issues in modern medicine / [edited by] John D. Arras, Bonnie Steinbock. Mountain View, Calif. Mayfield Pub., c1. W 50 E86 1. HL Reserve Book.

Foundations of evidence-based medicine / Milos Jenicek. Boca Raton Parthenon Pub. Group, c00. WB 10 J51f 00. MO New Book Shelf.

Saint-Frances guide to inpatient medicine / Sanjay Saint, Craig Frances. Philadelphia Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, c004. WB 18. S15s 004. HL Reserve Books.

MICROBIOLOGY / IMMUNOLOGY

Immunology a short course / Richard Coico, Geoffrey Sunshine, Eli Benjamini. Hoboken, N.J. Wiley-Liss, c00. QW 504 B468i 00. HL Reserve Books. QL Reserve Books.

Phosphoinositides in subcellular targeting and enzyme activation / H. Stenmark (ed.). Berlin ; New York Springer, c004. QW 4 CU8K v.8 004. QL Book Collection.

TOR, target of rapamycin / G. Thomas, D.M. Sabatini, M.N. Hall (eds.). Berlin ; New York Springer, c004. QW 4 CU8K v.7 004. QL Book Collection.

MOLECULAR / CELLULAR BIOLOGY

Essential cell biology / Bruce Alberts ... [et al.]. New York Garland Science, c004. QH 581. E78 004. QL Book Collection.

Molecular staging of cancer / H. Allgayer, M.M. Heiss, F.W. Schildberg (eds.). Berlin ; New York Springer-Verlag, c00. RECENT RESULTS CANCER RES V.16 00. MO Journals.

NEOPLASMS

Atlas of procedures in gynecologic oncology / Douglas A. Levine, Richard R. Barakat, William J. Hoskins. London Martin Dunitz, 00. WP 17 L665a 00. HL Reserve Book.

Chemosensitivity testing in oncology / U. Reinhold, W. Tilgen, eds. Berlin ; New York Springer, c00. RECENT RESULTS CANCER RES V.161 00. MO Journals.

Molecular staging of cancer / H. Allgayer, M.M. Heiss, F.W. Schildberg (eds.). Berlin ; New York Springer-Verlag, c00. RECENT RESULTS CANCER RES V.16 00. MO Journals.

Tumor prevention and genetics / H.-J. Senn, R. Morant (eds.). Berlin ; New York Springer, c00. RECENT RESULTS CANCER RES V.16 00. MO Journals.

NEPHROLOGY

Comprehensive clinical nephrology / edited by Richard J. Johnson, John Feehally. Edinburg ; New York Mosby, 00. WJ 00 J68c 00. HL Reserve Book.

NERVOUS SYSTEM / DISEASES / NEUROLOGY

Acetylcholine in the cerebral cortex / edited by Laurent Descarries, Kresimir Krnjevic, Mircea Steriade. Amsterdam ; Boston Elsevier, 004. WL 00 PR667J v.145 00. QL Book Collection.

Brain mechanisms for the integration of posture and movement / edited by Shigemi Mori, Douglas G. Stuart, Mario Wiesendanger ; technical editor Patricia A. Pierce. Amsterdam ; Boston Elsevier, 004. WL 00 PR667J v.14 001. QL Book Collection.

Clinical handbook of insomnia / edited by Hrayr P. Attarian ; foreword by Mark W. Mahowald. Totowa, N.J. Humana Press, c004. WM 188 C6416 004. HL New Books.

Migraine in women / Anne MacGregor. London ; New York Martin Dunitz, c00. WL 44 M1475m 00. MO New Book Shelf.

Neuroanatomy an atlas of structures, sections, and systems / Duane E. Haines ; special contributions by John A. Lancon ; illustrator, M.P. Schenk ; photographer, G.W. Armstrong. Philadelphia Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, c004. WL 17 H15n 004. HL Reserve Books. QL Reserve Books.

Neurology of cognitive and behavioral disorders / [editors], Orrin Devinsky, Mark DEsposito. Oxford ; New York Oxford University Press, 004. WL 10.5 N45 004. MO New Book Shelf.

Phantoms in the brain probing the mysteries of the human mind / V.S. Ramachandran, and Sandra Blakeslee. New York Quill, 1, c18. WL 100 R165p 18. QL Reserve Books.

NURSING

Building and managing a career in nursing strategies for advancing your career / [edited by] Terry W. Miller. Indianapolis, IN Sigma Theta Tau International, c00. WY 16 B 00. HL New Books.

Caring for patients from different cultures / Geri-Ann Galanti. Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press, c004. WY 87 G146c 004. HL Reserve Books. QL Reserve Books.

Fundamentals of nursing concepts, process, and practice / Barbara Kozier ... [et al.]. Upper Saddle River, N.J. Pearson/Prentice Hall, c004. WY 100 K88fa 004. HL New Books.

Medical-surgical nursing critical thinking in client care / [edited by] Priscilla LeMone, Karen Burke. Upper Saddle River, N.J. Pearson/Prentice Hall, c004. WY 100 M48 004. HL Reserve Books.

NCLEX-RN 50 new-format questions. Philadelphia Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, c004. WY 18. N 004. HL Reserve Books.

OBSTETRICS / GYNECOLOGY / WOMENS HEALTH

An atlas of breast disease / James A. Hall and John V. Knaus. New York Parthenon Pub. Group, c00. WP 17 H177a 00. HL New Books.

Atlas of procedures in gynecologic oncology / Douglas A. Levine, Richard R. Barakat, William J. Hoskins. London Martin Dunitz, 00. WP 17 L665a 00. HL Reserve Book.

Atlas of ultrasound in obstetrics and gynecology a multimedia reference / Peter M. Doubilet, Carol B. Benson. Philadelphia Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, c00. WQ 17 D76a 00. HL New Books.

Drugs for pregnant and lactating women / Carl P. Weiner, Catalin Buhimschi. New York Churchill Livingstone, c004. QZ W4d 004. HL Reserve Books.

Hysterectomy exploring your options / Edward E. Wallach, Esther Eisenberg. Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press, 00. WP 468 W155h 00. HL Book Collection.

ICD--CM diagnostic coding in obstetrics and gynecology. Washington, DC American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, c00. WP 15 I15 00. HL Reference 4.

Migraine in women / Anne MacGregor. London ; New York Martin Dunitz, c00. WL 44 M1475m 00. MO New Book Shelf.

OPHTHALMOLOGY

Vaughan & Asburys general ophthalmology / Paul Riordan-Eva and John P. Whitcher. New York Lange Medical Books/McGraw Hill ; London McGraw-Hill, 00. WW 100 V65g 004. HL Reserve Book.

OTOLARYNGOLOGY

Color atlas of E.N.T. diagnosis / T.R. Bull. New York Thieme Medical, 00. WV 17 B5c 00. HL New Books.

PEDIATRICS

The American Psychiatry Publishing textbook of child and adolescent psychiatry / edited by Jerry M. Wiener, Mina K. Dulcan. Washington, DC American Psychiatric Pub., c004. WS 50 T55 004. HL New Books.

Brief strategic family therapy for adolescent drug abuse / Jose Szapocznik, Olga Hervis, Seth Schwartz. Bethesda, Md. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 00. WM 70 S5b 00. HL New Books. MO Book Collection.

Deconstructing the school-to-prison pipeline / Johanna Wald, Daniel, J. Losen, issue editors. San Francisco Jossey-Bass, c00. NEW DIRECT YOUTH DEV NO. 00. HL Journals.

Krugmans infectious diseases of children. Philadelphia, Pa. Mosby, c004. WC 100 I4186 004. HL Reserve Books.

Neonatology management, procedures, on-call problems, diseases, and drugs / editor, Tricia Lacy Gomella ; associate editors, M. Douglas Cunningham, Fabien G. Eyal, Karin E. Zenk. New York Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill Medical Pub. Division, c004. WS N48 004. HL New Books.

Youth facing threat and terror supporting preparedness and resilience / Robert D. Macy, Susanna Barry, Gil G. Noam, issue editors. San Francisco Jossey-Bass, 00. NEW DIRECT YOUTH DEV NO.8 00. HL Journals.

PHARMACOLOGY

Chemosensitivity testing in oncology / U. Reinhold, W. Tilgen, eds. Berlin ; New York Springer, c00. RECENT RESULTS CANCER RES V.161 00. MO Journals.

Drug interactions analysis and management / Philip D. Hansten & John R. Horn. St. Louis Facts and Comparisons, 000- QV HA51D. MO Reference.

Drug use among racial/ethnic minorities. Bethesda, Md. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Division of Epidemiology, Services and Prevention Research, 00. WM 70 D74 00. HL Reference . MO Book Collection.

Drugs for pregnant and lactating women / Carl P. Weiner, Catalin Buhimschi. New York Churchill Livingstone, c004. QZ W4d 004. HL Reserve Books.

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia / edited by Theodore E. Warkentin, Andreas Greinacher. New York Dekker, c001. WH 00 H5 001. HL New Books. MO Book Collection.

NIOSH pocket guide to chemical hazards and other databases [electronic resource]. [Cincinnati, OH] Dept. of Health and Human Services, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 00. WA 465 N7185 00. HL AV Collection.

Pharmacology / Catherine E. Pelletier. New York McGraw-Hill, 00. QV 18. P88p 00. MO Reserve Books. QL Reserve Books.

PHYSICAL THERAPY

Clinical cases in physical therapy / Mark A. Brimer and Michael L. Moran. Oxford Butterworth-Heinemann, 004. WB 460 B857c 004. HL Reserve Books.

PHYSIOLOGY

Physiology / [edited by] Robert M. Berne ... [et al.]. St. Louis Mosby, c004. QT 4 P578 004. HL Reserve Book. QL Reserve Books. MO Reserve Books.

PUBLIC HEALTH

Common purpose strengthening families and neighborhoods to rebuild America / Lisbeth B. Schorr. New York Anchor Books, Doubleday, 17. HV 1 S74c 17.

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