Quick Analysis of Sound in Eraserhead

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David Lynch and Alan Splet created the sound for Eraserhead. Lynch claims that all of the sound effects are organic, but this does not assume that they are applied realistically throughout the film. Sounds and background noise are overbearing, while tunes are sparse. Apparently, only twenty-two pages of dialogue were scripted for Eraserhead, which usually represents only twenty-two minutes of footage. Alternatively, long cuts, dream sequences and constant sound effects draw the film out to a troubled and unsettling eighty-nine minutes (Goodwin 184 pp. 41-50). I will examine several aural aspects of the film and analyse its purpose in the context of the narrative.

Non-diegetic sounds are off-screen and not related to the narrative. Further to non-diegetic sounds, Eraserhead is consistent with its use of ‘territory sounds', a term used to describe sounds that are heard in a setting without observing the source. The industrial mayhem - whooshing, hissing, clanging, knocking, hammering and bumping are distinct to particular settings. As Henry visits each location, the distinctive sounds establish spatial distance and new circumstances. The noise level is often relevant to whether he is inside or outside. However, this is not always the case because the territory sounds also play a role in indicating Henry's mental capacity so the sounds also increase or deplete to heighten tension (Chion 14 pp. 6-80).

The diegetic sounds in Eraserhead are not authentic because they are louder, sharper and highly contrast the existing industrial sounds. Whenever incidental sounds are emitted, they are abnormally loud to intensify the ill feelings. Upon hearing sounds, the audience ear calculates proximity, for example, ripping up the lettuce and applying the salad dressing in Mrs X's kitchen, seem to be next to the audience ear. The amplification creates anxiety and the dire issues impending in the X household (Bordwell & Thompson 18 pp. 40-4). A peculiar diegetic sound occurs as Mary is gritting her teeth and rubbing her eyes. The sounds are sickening as they are tremendously amplified and exaggerated with an accompanying extreme close up shot. These personal sounds are not to interpret Mary's state; it is an aural point of view from Henry to symbolise his emotional state (Chion 14 pp. 6-80).

The film seems to depend on the visual and aural aspects rather than dialogue to tell the story; it is ten minutes before the first conversation is executed. In the opening sequence, no human sounds are audible either, only industrial sounds, which creates an atmosphere of detachment from oneself. The lack of communication between Henry and others also portrays his removal from society and loneliness. It points out the battles occurring in his head rather than with real people (Bordwell & Thompson 18 p. 40).

To hear and not see the source is known as an acousmatic sound. The acousmatic mechanical sounds are interpretative, but still restricted within the visual urban landscape. The sounds suggest trains rumbling on tracks with whistles blowing, clanging, whirring and whooshing in factories, clanging and crunching in a steelworks, but there is no evidence of work currently occurring. The sounds maintain a muffled factory quality; accurate to the source perceived (Bordwell & Thompson 18 p. 5). While Henry is in the apartment, the extension of sound did vary, depending on his focus and mood. When he stares into the radiator or the little cupboard, outside sounds are eliminated, to represent his detachment from the world and thus, reality. Chion supports this, ‘…the suppression of ambient sounds can create the sense that we are entering into the mind of a character absorbed by his or her story…' (Chion 14 p. 8).

Eraserhead does utilise ‘on-the-air' sound, the on-screen use of electronic devices such as radio, microphones etc in a scene. Henry puts on a record and he ensures that the needle is positioned correctly. In this first occasion, the background music is synched to match Henry's actions, it stutters as he lifts and puts the needle down again. Whilst the record is playing, the organ music consists of a melodic tempo, jazz rhythm, acoustic and grainy timbre, and seems distanced, continually crackling and clicking to reflect the mechanisms of an actual gramophone. The music has a carnival feel to it but that just makes it more distressing in conjunction with the narrative. Even though the initial application of the record and sounds are practical, the music does not stay true to its original source (Chion 14 pp. 76-77). It soon trails off unrealistically and reappears as ‘pit music' (Chion 14 pp. 80-85). ‘…numerous cases in current films where music established as on-the-air freely circulates between the two levels…' (Chion 14 p. 81). It is maddening and troubling as the grating and clicking of the gramophone can still be heard after the record has ended. The existence of the gramophone is opportunity to pile up more realistic territory sounds to represent the craziness that is occurring in Henry's mind.

The human mind manages to perceive sound coming from the intended source in a frame, even though it rarely does. In Eraserhead, for example, Mary X speaks to Henry through the windowpane. The sound is not actually coming from inside the house but the manipulation of the effects and human perception creates the effect. This sensitivity is a ‘…psychological phenomenon…' (Chion 14 p. 70) when sound and image is related in film as the ear detects the feeling of distance from the source. While Henry is walking to Mary's house, organ music is resonating and the continual industrial sounds blaring, and then Henry hears dogs barking and glass breaking in the distance. The sounds are realistic and perceived to be far away. In Eraserhead, the larger spaces are created to focus on Henry's loneliness in the real world. For example, the intimidating noise of the factories and constructions sites surrounding his tiny apartment represents his smallness and insignificance. Then the large natural forces of the rain and wind pounding onto the little apartment symbolises his world is crashing in around him (Chion 14 pp. 85-0).

Coinciding sounds to match the visual action are carefully chosen to focus the attention of the audience. As the man on the planet pulls the lever, the creaking sound is very loud and is accordant with the action. It is significant because it sets Henry (and the narrative) in motion. In contrast, as the fetus drops into liquid there is no splash audible. Instead only background sound of an organ chord, to create the feeling of falling and drowning. Nevertheless, within the same scene gurgling and bubbling sounds emit during the extreme close up of the fetus in the liquid. When Henry steps in the puddle, the background sound continues and no synchronized diegetic sound effects exist. It seems to represent that Henry is distracted by pessimistic thoughts and physicality is irrelevant. A disturbing example of synchronised sound and actions on the screen is the squishing of the fetuses by the lady in the radiator. The sweet sounds of the Fats Waller tune are crudely disrupted by piercing splats. However, an instance of unsynchronised sound is Henry hurling the fetuses at the wall as he finds them in bed. The fetuses hit the wall then the thud is heard after the impact. It proves to be a powerful technique; to see it happen and then hear it happen.

The organ creates sounds of suspense and pending doom throughout the film. For example, every time Henry approached his little cupboard in the apartment. Music is limited but because it is used minimally, it has a huge impact as it contrasts from the unrelenting construction sounds. At key points, music is introduced to create intensity and desired tempo. It is entirely derived from the creepy tune known as "In Heaven Everything is Fine" to interweave Henry's erratic state of mind. A still shot from a long distance captures Henry scuttle over mounds of dirt in a comical manner and Fats Waller's jazz organ music faintly resonates. The organ music is barely recognisable amongst the continuous industrial sounds but it gives the scene tempo.

Intensification of the music with the accompaniment of a haunting, hymn-like verse (lip-synched) by the lady in the radiator illustrates the height of Henry's fantasy. In a sweet drool she is promising Henry that things will turn out well in the next world. The music possesses a magical quality, extremely haunting but engaging at the same time in conjunction with her unwavering innocent persona.

If a revulsion genre existed, Eraserhead is it. It is not a horror film as such, though, what the audience hears and sees is horrific. The use of unsettling territory sounds and eerie non-diegetic organ music in conjunction with the dreary, black and white visual images successfully makes the audience feel uncomfortable and on edge during its entirety.

Bibliography

Goodwin, K.G., (184) ‘Eraserhead', http//www.davidlynch.de/cfqhead.html Cinefantastique, September 184, Vol. 14, No 4 // Vol 14 No 5 p. 41-50, 55-7, David Lynch Retrospect, 10 September 00.

Chion, M., (14) Audio-Vision Sound on Screen, Columbia University Press, New York.

Bordwell & Thompson, (18) Film Art An Introduction, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Chion, M., (15) David Lynch, British Film Institute, London.

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Principles of Constructivism: Difference Approaches to Learning

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Introduction

Constructivism is the theoretical approach of education that states, "individuals form or construct much of what they learn and understand" (Schunk, 000). This concept incorporates social interaction with environmental circumstances into learning experiences. There are many theorists which encompass the constructivist approach into learning techniques. However, the most influential theorists include psychologists, Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner. The ideology of constructivism can be identified by following these theorists' views and application into instructional curriculum.

Vygotsky and Bruner share common instructional techniques which aid in the learning process. They share the principle that learners play and active role in the learning process. Likewise, each possesses originality in maintaining individual styles of constructivism through their differences. Vygotsky addresses the importance of culture (language) on individual learning while Bruner stresses gradual implementation of information to enhance learning. These theorists have influenced modern psychology by including constructivist approaches to education.

Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky, Soviet psychologist deemed social cognition to be the foundation for development and learning. The context in which Vygotsky wrote includes the sociocultural theory on development and learning. From Vygotsky's perspective, culture and social surroundings are the primary establishments in which learning occurs. It is through the combination of societal and individual elements which generates learning. He alleged that since people create culture (i.e. society, traditions, background, ethnicity, customs, etc…) individuals, especially children develop in the silhouette of this culture. Vygotsky's major influences include his theory on the zone of proximal development (ZPD), self-regulated learning and scaffolding. ZPD states that the quantity of knowledge in which an individual is capable of learning is directly related to the instructional circumstances presented to the learner. Self-regulated learning teaches individuals to initiate and manage their behaviors in order to accomplish learning objectives. Scaffolding is a process whereby the instructor adjusts to the need of the learner in order to maintain a successful learning environment. From Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, instructors are able to create, design and implement suitable lessons which incorporate social interaction and manipulation. Learners also benefit as well by having the ability to monitor and evaluate individual development and set their own goals.

Jerome Bruner

Jerome Bruner considered cognitive growth and representation of knowledge to be the foundation of development and learning. The context in which Bruner wrote includes the combination of developmental and constructionist psychology. From Bruner's perspective, individuals represent knowledge. Individuals utilize a variety of skills in the learning process through three modes of developmental sequence. Bruner's major influences include his theory on the representation of knowledge (as a series of developmental events) and spiral curriculum. Representation of knowledge includes the enactive, iconic, and symbolic skills in which individual's possess. Enactive ability involves the use of environmental manipulation or automatic motor responsiveness. Iconic ability involves image recognition. Symbolic ability is classified as the highest of the three skills whereby individuals understand abstract concepts and reasoning. Spiral curriculum is the concept of receiving information on identical topics at various levels of difficulty in order to integrate current and past knowledge. From Bruner's constructivist theory, instructors have been able to implement the concept of discovery learning into their curriculum. Discovery learning is a method of instruction through which learners interact with their own environment. Learners are able to advance their thinking skills by examining and altering surrounding objects, participating in group discussions, debates and controversies, and/or through experimentation.

Similarities Between Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner

Closer examinations of these psychologists show commonalities among their theories of learning and development. Both Vygotsky and Bruner share constructivist views in which individuals construct knowledge during active interaction with other people and their surroundings. Both theorists believe that learners play and active role in the learning process. It is through this interaction that learners increase their skills. Examples of such interaction utilized by both theorists include manipulation, social interaction and working together with other learners.

Another similar factor includes the technique of Vygotsky's instructional scaffolding and Bruner's spiral organization of curriculum. Both instructional techniques utilize the process of re-examining prior knowledge and implementing its content into current instruction. Instructional scaffolding also incorporates Bruner's theory of discovery learning. Both techniques can support learning through social interaction such as classroom discussions. Instructional scaffolding, spiral curriculum and discovery learning allow learners adequate time to develop their skills necessary to advance.

Differences Between Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner

They differ however in their foundational structures. Vygotsky greatly emphasized the importance of culture, especially language (or signs) as the primary instructor of individual thought. He believed language has the capability to order behavior. "Children bring a developmental history to the zone of proximal development; adults bring a support structure" (Bruning, 1). Once this interaction is engaged, cultural development occurs, thus modifying cognitive skills. In the same sense, an individual with a higher level of cultural experiences will inadvertently increase their learning skills.

Bruner believed that individuals of any age can be instructed in a significant manner. Learning occurs when individuals revisit prior knowledge in order to incorporate its content into the new information. Bruner "emphasized mental structures and organizational frameworks" to accomplish the task of recalling prior knowledge into current instruction (Bruning, 1). It is not through cultural experiences alone that enhances learning, but through effective instruction in which information is gradually presented to learners. They are introduced to a topic at a simple level to progress their learning skills. Once this level has been achieved, more difficult levels reflecting the same topic are introduced until learners have mastered the topic.

Conclusion

Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner have presented various instructional techniques which developed from theories of constructivism. Vygotsky introduced how knowledge is directly related to the instructional circumstances presented to the learner through his zone of proximal development. He also addresses the importance of culture (language) and social surroundings which affect learning processes. Bruner introduced how individuals at any age can be successful learners through gradual representation of knowledge. He also addresses the significance of prior knowledge and incorporating its content into new learning experiences.

Vygotsky and Bruner affected the way in which instruction is presented today. From Vygotsky's theories, educators can examine the effect of cultural interaction with learners' ability to maintain knowledge. Bruner's theories have pioneered into educational techniques which are popular amongst learning facilities today. Discovery learning has been accepted as a critical component of instruction since it incorporates both social interactions with the progression of learning. In conclusion, while Vygotsky and Bruner displayed similarities of principles of constructivism, they differed in their instructional techniques to fit the need of individual learning capacities.

References

Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., and Ronning, R. R. (1). Cognitive Psychology and Instruction

(rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Constructivist Theory. (n.d.) Retrieved July 5, 00, from the World Wide Web http//tip.psychology.org/bruner.html

Jonassen, D. H., & Land, S. M. (000). Theoretical Foundations of Learning Environments.

Mahwah, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Payne, C. (00). A Consideration of Learning Theory in Relation to a Philosophy of Education.

Retrieved July 5, 00, from the World Wide Web http//www.mhc.ab.ca/users/cpayne/portfolio/eder681 _files/CPayner68_1.htm

Schunk, D. H. (000). Learning Theories An Educational Perspective (rd ed.). Upper Saddle

River, NJ Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Smith, M.K. (00). Jerome S. Bruner and the Process of Education. Retrieved July 5, 00

from The Encyclopedia of Informal Education at http//www.infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm.

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2. Would contemporary Southeast Asia be significantly different if formal colonial rule had never been imposed on most of the region?

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Contemporary Southeast Asia is what it is today rich in diversity of culture and achieving general economic and political stability due to a combination of factors. However to find out whether Southeast Asia would be different without colonialism, there is a need to examine the European role and the extent of their impact politically, socially and economically. Also there is a need to examine the pre colonial Southeast Asia and "have an awareness of the rich and important history of Southeast Asian states".(Osborne 18 61) .It is necessary to examine all these factors to determine whether there would be a significant change in Southeast Asia without colonialism.

The impact of colonialism in Southeast Asia before the nineteenth century was negligible. It was after the Portuguese conquered Malacca that the thrust of European imperialism in Southeast Asia was felt. Though Thailand is the only Southeast Asian state that is never colonized, it is still as competitive as the rest of the states in its economy and as modernized. However it must not be forgotten that it was still under pressure from colonial powers that it adopted policies of westernization and modernization to avoid being colonized. Though never under colonialism, it still experienced indirect colonial rule in this manner. It might be argued that colonial rule did not shape Southeast Asia significantly by using the example of Thailand since it has achieved a similar state of progress however it must not be forgotten that it was still under indirect colonial influence.

What was most evidential in modern Southeast Asia that was established during colonial rule was modernization and westernization. It was possible that colonialism did act as a catalyst to modernization in these states. It must be noted that pre colonial Southeast Asia was not inferior to the colonial powers as by Osborne's words ( 18 68), Vietnam was "unified and expanding" and other states also had organized political systems and peaceful societies. However colonialism saw an overhaul of the old village system to introduce more modern and westernized political administration as well as improvements to communications and economy. All in all, it introduced "a new framework to society". New western concepts were introduced and economically, new mechanization techniques of agriculture as well as a sound communication system was established. This can be seen by the railway built across from Thailand to Malaysia greatly increased efficiency of transportation and trade even till present day. From this, we can speculate that perhaps Southeast Asia may not acquire such knowledge and technology that quickly and be less modernized if not for colonialism. As Sardesai (17 141) said colonialism "introduced far reaching changes in most walks of life and the impact surviving colonial rule itself". The foundation of a strong and sound infrastructure in Southeast Asia may not exist today if not for economic reforms during colonialism.

By examining how Southeast Asia was affected by colonialism socio-culturally, we would be able to infer if Southeast Asian would be different without colonial influence. Though colonial language and culture were enforced during that time however few outlasted colonialism. As noted because the adoption of foreign socio-culture was strained and resented by the natives, countries like Indonesia and the Philippines still largely stuck to their native languages and beliefs. Also, the cultures in many countries are rich and deeply rooted and resisted assimilating into foreign culture and language. This saw limited dissipation of foreign influence. In fact Vietnam and Cambodia are more sinicised in clothing and architecture instead of influenced by the French. ( Osborne 18) However in Singapore and Malaysia, there is the usage of British English and laws which exist till present day.

Though not much success were gained in the spread of colonial socio-culture however education policies as suggested by Sardesai( 17 147) did "opened the minds of the youth to political ideas of the west" and boost literacy rates in the countries. A more lasting effect could be seen in the greater mix of ethnicity, higher literacy rates and liberalization in modern Southeast Asia. It could be possible that Southeast Asia could be less liberal and educated if not for the compulsory education system during colonial rule and the extent of western influence could be reduced greatly and perhaps only through trading. However this does not mean that Southeast Asians would not achieve literacy but perhaps would take a longer time to achieve the same progress.

Religion wise, Spain did successfully convert many Filipinos to become Catholics and Osborne (18 7 ) said there is a ‘profound effect inseparably linked with the experience of Spanish rule.' Catholicism seems to lay the foundation of Filipino society and even up till today, Philippines is still a largely Catholic country. Also the Dutch did extend some form of religious influence as Osborne (18 74) mentioned "implantation of Christianity" in Sumatra and Ambon and there is some extent that Christianity still prevails in these areas though the rest of Indonesia is largely Muslim. However the natives "did not accept the alien rule passively" (Sardesai 17 04) and had their own beliefs and culture. Southeast Asia was open to other form of religions as well due to influence of foreign traders as well as missionaries and it could be possible that they would adopt the same religion despite colonialism and it was more a matter of receptiveness by the people as shown above.

"Nationalism was one of Europe's exports to the colonial world". (Sardesai 17 145) The "economic dislocation and distress caused by western rule" (Sardesai 15 146) raised awareness and nationalistic feelings among the people. The development of a sense of loyalty and patriotism towards their country among Southeast Asians was definitely perpetuated by colonialism as seen by the widespread resistance movements and many came together to stand as one against colonialism. Pre colonial times saw many Southeast Asians only seeing their country as a means to survive and more individualistic behaviours of the people. Without the aggravation of colonialism, Southeast Asians might not develop such a strong sense of national identity and be as united as modern Southeast Asia today.

Historically, the colonial powers did make a lasting impact in a "revival of a glorious historical past" (Sardesai 17 147) of Southeast Asia when archaeological excavations, temples were restored and arts were studied. Most notable are the efforts by "Thomas Stamford Raffles in Malaya and Java" (Sardesai 17 147) and all these achievements is eminent in modern Southeast Asia.

Geographically, the colonial masters defined the boundaries of Southeast Asia existing today. Osborne said (18 77) "The importance of the European powers in the creation of new boundaries is abundantly apparent in relation to peninsular Malaysia." as well as Philippines and without colonial rule, it could be possible that the boundaries of many Southeast Asian states with the exception of Vietnam may not be what they are today.

However, the modern Southeast Asia cannot be attributed to only one factor and factors like Japanese imperialism during World War two, the people of each individual country, their leaders and their culture and beliefs all played a part in making Southeast Asia what it is today. The combination of these factors help shaped the history of Southeast Asia. It is no doubt that colonialism did play an important role in that "it generated forces of industrialization, urbanization, modernization, intellectual ferment, and political ambition that inspired at least a small elite in each colony to abandon part of the traditional trappings" ( Sardesai 17 141 ) however there's only a limited extent to its influence in modern Southeast Asia. Although we will not know for sure whether Southeast Asia would be substantially different without colonialism however it is possible to speculate from all the above reasons Southeast Asia may not be what it is today- a competitive, educated people if not for formal colonial rule.

References

Osborne, Milton, "Southeast Asia An Introductory History" (February 18)

Truong Buu Lam, "Colonialism experienced Vietnamese Writings on Colonialism 100-11" (August 000)

D.R. SarDesai, "Southeast Asia Past and Present"

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Joon park

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Relationships are a funny thing. I dont mean just girls and guys. I mean anyone. And I don't mean acquaintances. I mean the type of friends you expect to know for the rest of your God-given life. The type that aren't afraid to tell you you're being a fucking moron, the type that stick around when your ass is getting dragged in the mud, that actually listen and respond to everything you have to say. There's not a lot of these sorts of friends around but they happen.

I feel bad for the people that don't have friends like that. I feel bad for the predictable people, those boring clich archetypes the bad boy who won't call, the slut who can't get it together, the college drop-out working at his parents' business, the thirty-year old single guy who acts half his age, the teen girl trying to be twenty-eight, the gossip-talking getting-wasted-every-weekend credit-card-abusing mommy-hating spoiled rich easily-offended over-sensitive immature grudge-bearing child of some other lost backwards generation that went out of style in the nineties. They're like slap bracelets and '76 Pintos I take a look at you and I'm thinking, "They still make you?" I feel bad for these people because they never grow up and never have friends. The real ones.

I have to thank a lot of people all the time. Face to face, or at least in my head. Ted was never afraid to tell me I was screwing up. He would tell me that the last resort is to walk away. Which means, if I screwed up too much, he loved me enough to walk away so I would force myself to get it right. I remember when I kept floating back to Jennifer even though I knew she wasn't good for me (and to be fair, I wasn't good for her), and about the tenth time I went back to her, Ted walked away. He said he wouldn't be friends with a guy that couldn't keep his own word. His purpose was to fix me and I knew he would come back, but then I knew he wouldn't come back if I didn't fix it. He had every right to walk away and I never got mad about it. If I was in his position, I would've walked away earlier.

I remember when I helped this girl for a couple weeks after she broke up with her guy, but then she floated right back to him. I was upset as hell. I told her that too. She actually laughed at me. She said, "Don't care so much, it's my life." How many times have you heard that sort of fucking bullshit? If I'm her friend, I'm supposed to care, and it's not just HER LIFE. That's a dumb-dumb excuse, and she knows I'm smarter than that sort of shit. Every decision you make affects everyone around you. Your decisions don't exist in a sealed vacuum. If you don't want your friends to care when you make a dumb decision, then don't have friends. Just live your life like a fucking idiot and be the clich of everyone ELSE.

Fuck that girl. I walked away and she never fixed it, so I did what she said. I stopped caring. I was the last one in her life to really care, too, and she threw it away for some dick. Oh well.

Friends are supposed to listen. They respond and articulate and interact. They don't just tell stories and make everyone else listen; that's just selfish. I remember sitting in the car with these two guys once, and granted these are two guys I love very much, BUT MAN . . . they just went back and forth between each other, telling story after story about themselves with NO interest in each other's stories, and sometimes their stories would run together into a giant mega-story that would cut between plot lines like a badly edited film. I would be hearing six or seven stories all at once and I had to bite my lip from laughing at the lunacy of it all.

I asked questions about their silly stories, not because I cared about what they had to say, but because friends do that. Sometimes, the questions are genuine. Other times, they're not. But friends have to convey interest, real or feigned. Ted is really into databases and computer stuff, which I'm really not, but I make myself interested because HE IS interested damnit. I don't care that I'm not into it he's into it, so I will be into it. As a friend, I have to do things like that, even if I don't like it. I know that maybe my girlfriend doesn't care about my writing or music or maybe freaking everything, but she still has to respond to it. She has to care, not because she cares, but because she cares that I care.

Here's something I hear a lot "I got your back." That statement is thrown around like excess toilet paper. Sure, it's great to hear and it rolls off the tongue smooth. It's just . . . most people don't "have your back." People freeze up in confrontation. When my stepbrother got jumped, his buddies (including my brother) just stood there. It's not like they didn't want to help him it's just fear. Freezing up happens. I've frozen up before too. The first time something goes down, it's always no words and no actions. Then after that, you better shape up or you're nothing but a regular sell-out.

There's bigger issues with loyalty like that. Even when you disagree, you still have to stick by your friend. You express disagreement later, in private. When your buddy fights someone, even if you don't agree with your buddy, you still fight alongside until it's over. Then disagree later. That's a Relationship Law. Those fake faggot clichs will never understand it, and sometimes even the good people won't get it too easy.

Ted once asked me "How can you build yourself strong enough so that no one will ever leave you?" We tell ourselves all the time that we have courage, that we have these secret reservoirs of strength that we can pull from when the time comes . . . but when the time comes, we stand there. Frozen. The first time, it's sort of okay I guess, but the second time . . . no. You're not a foundation then. You're just another one of those people that get left behind. You're one of those single thirty-year old kids still playing the same games with phone gossip and parental struggles and career questions. Without foundation, you're a fucking piece of shit. How many words can I say that in? Insignificant, boring, irrelevant, sell-out, despicable, disgusting, low, last, scum.

Should I name names?

John Hwang, Ricky Lee, Yoonkyung, Minkyung, Younghee and all of her wonderful Miami buddies, John Diaz, my new buddy Youn (and I already forgot his face), anyone that thought it was funny to call me chink, any Korean that lives in Orlando over the age of twelve, and ninety-eight percent of the population on this earth. I keep the middle fingers up on both my hands for all of you.

Congratulations, losers! You've defined rock bottom.

If I murdered you, God would thank me. Just keep your door locked at night, fuckers.

And for the rest of you, the REAL people, those foundations of life so strong and awesome . . . you should know you keep the world turning. You make it all worth living. You're beyond any sort of justified explanation that could describe your loyalty. There's ups and downs, faults and mistakes, slips and stumbles, flaws and falls . . . but you're always there. Take a hint, you other fuckers, because these real people that I know they're the ones you'll be working for.

I couldn't ever explain it all in writing. The purpose of a chingoo is love, but that's not all there is. There's something above and beneath that happy-happy ideal fantasy version of friendship. A lot of people think they understand it, but they don't. It's just SAD. If you don't have anyone you can tell everything to, if you don't have someone that will be there when you want them there, if you don't have someone that will die for you, and if you're not the person to do any of that shit either . . . then you better change something. Try harder, or quit trying so hard. Grow up, or chill out. Get up, or sit down. Or just grab a really big gun and say goodbye.

I'll just say this. I would die for any of my friends. I would kill for them too. In the blink of an eye, I wouldn't hesitate to grab the metal pipe out of my car and drive across America to kill some guy I don't know if that guy touched one hair on my friend's head. I don't care if that guy would kill me he would remember me for the rest of his fucking life. I'm crazy, you know. I'm really just crazy.

People just don't know. None of my friends are just regular chumps you can mouth off to, and neither am I. People just don't know what they're getting into when they're fucking with my buddies or me. They just don't know.

And yeah, I would walk away if I had to. I would leave my friends if that's what it took for them to set their priorities straight. If you're afraid to do the right thing, then peace. See you when I see you, because you WILL NOT be afraid of shit as long as I'm here, or else I'm gone. Right? Right.

Relationships are a funny thing, you know. People think it's all about fun and love and games, when it's really a lot harder than that. Anyone can have fun and games but then it's back to that clich. You're not unique anymore . . . you're just as predictable as everyone else. You gotta be a little gangster with your buddies. Just think of Jesus getting crucified for our sins. That's how we must act for our friends. There's a lot of pain in ensuring the foundation of a righteous friendship, and even Jesus walked away from the stupid motherfuckers that never got it.

Grit your teeth. Swallow the pride. Take a deep breath and look in the mirror.

Ask yourself if you're really something good for people, or if you're just detrimental to a world that is already too full of losers. Ask yourself if you have any good friends or if you've been a good one. Not just someone that can fight, but someone that can listen. Not just someone that can love, but someone that can reprimand. Not just someone that can have fun, but someone that can stand in the rain and give up the umbrella.

What would Jesus do, man. What.

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The Courage of Jimmy Carter

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The Courage of Jimmy Carter

When asked which president they feel was the most courageous, most people would reply with either Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, Roosevelt, or Kennedy. While these are all valid claims, I believe that one former president is being overlooked. His name is Jimmy Carter, and in my opinion, he is one of the most courageous people to ever be elected to the office of President of the United States of America.

James Earl Carter Jr. was born October 1, 14 in Plains, Georgia (Maroukian 154). His father operated a small country store and his mother was a homemaker. He was brought up in a strict Southern Baptist home and soon realized that he wanted to be a naval officer. He lobbied hard for an appointment to the Naval Academy in Annapolis and, in 14, his wish was granted. In 146 he graduated 5th in a class of 80 and was assigned to serve on the USS Pomfret battleship (155). After touring the Pacific for three years he was one of a small group of officers selected to work on the Navy's new nuclear submarine program. He studied nuclear physics at Union College in New York for two years before returning to the Navy to serve a tour of duty on the nuclear submarine Sea Wolf. In 15, following the death of his father, Carter resigned from the Navy and returned to Plains to take over the family farm (Carter, J.).

Success in Plains, Georgia came slowly. Carter founded a fertilizer business, increased his real estate holdings and acquired a cotton gin, a peanut shelling plant, a farm operation, and numerous warehouses. He soon owned more than ,100 acres of land, had a net worth of $600,000 and total assets of over one million dollars (Carter J.). Life was going very well for the military officer turned peanut farmer and he and his new wife Rosalyn planned on starting a family and living out the rest of their lives in Plains. While establishing himself as a successful farmer and businessman, Carter began his political career as chairman of the Sumter county school board. He also served as chairman of the county hospital authority, as president of the Plains Development Corporation, and as president of the Crop Improvement Association (Maroukian 155).

After the Supreme Court ruled in 154 that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, Georgia underwent a period of upheaval. In Plains, a White Citizens' Council movement was organized. When Carter was asked to join he adamantly refused, which caused his businesses to be boycotted and vandalized. In a situation like this, most people would have given in to the peer pressure, but Jimmy Carter stood up for what he believed in and for what was right. He never once considered siding with the supremacist group and was disappointed when he realized that some of his closest friends and neighbors disowned him due to his beliefs. When a new state senate seat was formed in the legislative reapportionment of 16, Carter decided to run, although nobody thought he had a chance.

Although he was first believed to have lost, it was soon realized that Jimmy Carter had won the state senate election. He went on to serve two terms where his record on education and equality made him enormously popular with the residents of his district. In 166, Carter sought the Georgia governorship, but ran third in the primary. He immediately started preparing for the 170 election and ended up winning by a landslide. His term as governor was marked by the appointment of increased numbers of black citizens to state boards and agencies, and he hung a large portrait of the late Martin Luther King Jr. in the capital building, a move which would have been unheard of in earlier years. He reorganized the state government by abolishing more than 00 offices, board, and commissions and consolidating their functions into new agencies (Carter, H. 10). He instituted the passage of a "sunshine law" to open government meetings to the public. He added large tracts of wilderness area to the state parks system and pushed for adoption of environmental legislation to protect the state's rivers (10). He also supported the reinstatement of the death penalty and worked for stiffer sentences in drug cases. Most politicians don't accomplish this much in their whole careers, but Jimmy Cater did this and more in only four short years as the governor of Georgia.

Carter sensed that the mood of the country was anti-Washington. The American public wanted a leader who wasn't associated with Watergate or the Vietnam War. Just as with his early bids for the state senate and governorship, nobody thought Carter had what it took to win a presidential election. When the results of the Iowa, New Hampshire, and Florida caucuses came in everyone was amazed when Carter won them all. He chose Senator Walter Mondale of Minnesota as his running mate, thus gaining a Northern liberal to add balance to the ticket. He defeated Gerald Ford in the electoral college by receiving 7 votes to Ford's 40, with one vote going to Ronald Reagan (Maroukian 156).

Jimmy Carter was inaugurated on January 0, 177. He immediately demonstrated his disdain for what he considered to be the "imperial presidency." After taking the oath of office, he and members of his staff walked to the White House, where he quickly sold the presidential yacht and other lucrative possessions that previous presidents had used tax dollars to buy (Carter, J). Most of his decisions while president were favored by the public, but his policies regarding foreign and domestic affairs, national defense, and hostages in Iran were under constant scrutiny.

In foreign affairs, Carter undertook to establish human rights as a tenet of American policy. His frequent criticism of nations that violated basic human rights angered the Soviet Union, which took the statements personally and viewed them as intervention in its internal affairs. In spite of these differences, Carter and Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev signed the Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty in Vienna in 17, which set limits on the amount of nuclear weapons the United States and the Soviet Union could possess and limited the amount of military force that the United States and the Soviet Union could impose on weaker countries (Cockburn ). The media and the general public viewed the signing of this treaty as very beneficial and thought that it was the first step in establishing a peaceful alliance with the Soviet Union. When this treaty was put before the senate, however, it failed to be ratified and, in return, allowed the Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan the following year. You may recall that in wake of the September 11, 001 terrorist attacks it was noted that the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan was a direct cause of the Al Queda terrorist group being formed. Just think, if those Senators would have listened to Jimmy Carter and ratified the Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty the biggest catastrophe in the existence of our country would not have happened.

By far, the most perplexing problem that President Carter faced was the seizure of American diplomats by Iranian students in 17. When more than a year of negotiations and an attempted airborne rescue failed, many people became dissatisfied with the Carter administration and his approval rating plummeted. Carter tried everything he could think of to regain the hostages, but was unable to succeed in any venue. Ironically, the hostages were finally released on January 0, 181, the inauguration day of Carter's successor, Ronald Reagan (Will 8). Their freedom was obtained in exchange for concessions that included the unfreezing of Iranian assets in the United States, something that Carter refused to do.

Carter worked hard to combat the continuing economic woes of inflation and unemployment. By the end of his administration, jobs in America increased by eight million and the budget deficit decreased dramatically (Carter, H. 10). Unfortunately, inflation and interest rates were at near record highs, and efforts to reduce them caused a short recession. He dealt with the energy shortage by establishing a national energy policy and by decontrolling domestic petroleum prices to stimulate production. He was a large supporter of civil service reform and was instrumental in the deregulation of the trucking and airline industries. He sought to improve the environment as his expansion of the national park system included the protection of 10 million acres of Alaskan lands (10). To increase human and social services, he created the Department of Education, bolstered the Social Security system, and appointed a record number of women, blacks, and Hispanics to government jobs.

Since leaving the White House in 180, former president Carter has traveled the globe, working for peace and the fair treatment of all people. In 18, Carter and his wife, Rosalyn, set up the Carter Center to promote human rights, democracy and health care (Will 8). He goes to the world's most troubled regions, helping to make sure elections are fair and spreading a message of peace. On October 11, 00 he was awarded one of the world's highest honors, the Nobel Peace Prize. The prize committee noted Carter's "untiring effort to find peaceful solutions" (Maroukian 157). Carter said he plans to give most of his one million dollar prize to the Carter Center so its work may continue, "not just in my lifetime but for the next hundred years" (157).

Although Jimmy Carter may have struggled with some aspects of the presidency, it is safe to say that he faced much harder challenges than most other presidents have in the past. He may be remembered by some people as the president who could not get the hostages out of Iran, the president who let the economy suffer during uncertain times, or the president who failed to establish some form of control over the Soviet Union's nuclear weapons. To me, though, he will be remembered as the president who tirelessly supported issues concerning the preservation of the environment, the president who wholeheartedly cut the government's excess spending, and the president who established the highly important Department of Education and strengthened Social Security. Most importantly though, I will remember him as the person who continually strives to do his best and who will stand up for what is right no matter what the consequences may be. Jimmy Carter is, in my opinion, one of the most courageous presidents in the history of our great country and a most deserving candidate of the Nobel Peace Prize.

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World Peace

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World Peace and Understanding

Through out the existence of the world, there has never been world peace. We can trace wars and conflicts between countries and groups way before our time. When look back in history over the conflicts and struggles that people in this world have endured, does anyone think there will ever be a time that the world will be truly peaceful? This whole concept seems far-fetched like a Miss America pageant wish, or a fairy tale dream, that will never come true. The fact is people fight over everything from territory to religion and everything else in between. This is something we cannot stop, it is an on going process and it has been happening for years. To me this is the reason world peace will never occur, at least in my lifetime.

Territorial struggles have been going on with groups and countries for years, just look at the Palestinians and the Israelis, here are two groups of people that have been angry at each other for decades. The Palestinians are the people that originated from Israel; they were there for hundreds of years before the Israelis were. Then when the Israelis came to Israel, the Palestinians became angry because they started to take over the land causing a lot of tension and conflict between the two groups. The conflict of whom the land belongs to has been causing them to fight for years.

World War 1 was started by international conflict between the Central Powers--Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey--and the Allied Powers--mainly France, Britain, Russia, Italy, and (from 117) the U.S. After a Serbian nationalist assassinated Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria in June 114, a chain of threats and mobilizations resulted in a general war between the antagonists by mid-August. Prepared to fight a war on two fronts, based on the Schlieffen Plan, Germany first swept through neutral Belgium and invaded France. After the First Battle of the Marne (114), the Allied defensive lines were stabilized in France, and a war of attrition began. Fought from lines of trenches and supported by modern artillery and machine guns, infantry assaults gained little ground and were enormously costly in human life, especially at the Battles of Verdun and the Somme (116). On the Eastern front, Russian forces initially drove deep into East Prussia and German Poland (114), but were stopped by German and Austrian forces at the Battle of Tannenberg and forced back into Russia (115). After several offensives, the Russian army failed to break through the German defensive lines. Russias poor performance and enormous losses caused widespread domestic discontent that led to the Russian Revolution of 117. Other fronts in the war included the Dardanelles Campaign, in which British and Dominion forces were unsuccessful against Turkey; the Caucasus and Persia, where Russia fought Turkey; Mesopotamia and Egypt, where British forces fought the Turks; and North Italy, where Italian and Austrian troops fought the costly Battles of the Isonzo. At sea, the German and British fleets fought the inconclusive Battle of Jutland, and Germanys use of the submarine against neutral shipping eventually brought the U.S. into the war in 117. Though Russias armistice with Germany in December 117 released German troops to fight on the Western Front, the Allies were reinforced by U.S. troops in early 118. Germanys unsuccessful offensive in the Second Battle of the Marne was countered by the Allies steady advance, which recovered most of France and Belgium by October 118 and led to the November Armistice. Total casualties were estimated at 10 million dead, 1 million wounded, and 7.7 million missing or imprisoned.

World War was started by international conflict principally between the Axis Powers--Germany, Italy, and Japan--and the Allied Powers--France, Britain, the U.S., and the Soviet Union. Political and economic instability in Germany, combined with bitterness over its defeat in World War I and the harsh conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, allowed A. Hitler and the Nazi Party to rise to power. In the mid-10s, Hitler began secretly to rearm Germany, in violation of the treaty. He signed alliances with Italy and Japan to oppose the Soviet Union and intervened in the Spanish Civil War in the name of anticommunism. Capitalizing on the reluctance of other European powers to oppose him by force, he sent troops to occupy Austria in 18 (see Anschluss) and to annex Czechoslovakia in 1. After signing the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact, Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1. Two days later, France and Britain declared war on Germany. Polands defeat was followed by a period of military inactivity on the Western front. At sea Germany conducted a damaging submarine campaign by U-boat against merchant shipping bound for Britain. By early 140 the Soviet Union had divided Poland with Germany, occupied the Baltic States, and subdued Finland in the Russo-Finnish War. In April 140 Germany overwhelmed Denmark and began its conquest of Norway. In May German forces swept through the Netherlands and Belgium on their blitzkrieg invasion of France, forcing it to capitulate in June and establish the Vichy France regime. Germany then launched massive bombing raids on Britain in preparation for a cross-Channel invasion, but after losing the Battle of Britain Hitler postponed the invasion indefinitely. By early 141 Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria had joined the Axis, and German troops quickly overran Yugoslavia and Greece in April. In June Hitler abandoned his pact with the Soviet Union and launched a massive surprise invasion of Russia, reaching the outskirts of Moscow before Soviet counterattacks and winter weather halted the advance. In E. Asia, Japan expanded its war with China and seized European colonial holdings. In December 141 Japan attacked U.S. bases at Pearl Harbor and in the Philippines, and the U.S. declared war on Japan and all the Axis Powers. Japan quickly invaded and occupied most of South-East Asia, Burma, the Netherlands E. Indies, and many Pacific islands. After the crucial U.S. naval victory at the Battle of Midway (14), U.S. forces began to advance up the chains of islands toward Japan. In the North Africa Campaigns, the British defeated Italian and German forces by 14. The Allies then invaded Sicily and Italy, forcing the overthrow of the Fascist government in July 14, though fighting against the Germans continued in Italy until 145. In the Soviet Union, the Battle of Stalingrad (14) marked the end of the German advance, and Soviet reinforcements in great numbers gradually pushed the German armies back. The massive Allied invasion of Western Europe began with the Normandy Campaign in W France (144), and the Allies steady advance ended in the occupation of Germany in 145. After Soviet troops pushed German forces out of the Soviet Union, they advanced into Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Romania, and had occupied the East third of Germany by the time the surrender of Germany was signed on May 8, 145. The war in the Pacific ended quickly after atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 145. Japans formal surrender on September ended the war. Estimates of total military and civilian casualties varied from 5 million to 60 million killed, about 6 million Jews who died in the Holocaust. Millions more civilians were wounded and made homeless throughout Europe and East Asia

Communism is a big reason for many countries going to war or having conflicts with in them. Lets take a look at Germany in the year 161, the year the Berlin Wall was built. The wall was built to divide communist East Berlin and non- communist West Berlin. To make the situation worse, German government then deiced to end its restrictions on emigration and travel to the West by its citizens. This separation lasted until 18, when the East deiced to bring down the wall. The division between East and West Berlin lasted for many years and caused an enormous inconvenience for many people living in that city. This is just one of the many conflicts that have occurred, due to communist beliefs.

The Korean War is another example to how a country will easily divided itself in half over communist beliefs and fight about them for years and years. At the end of World War, Soviet forces accepted surrender of Japanese forces north of the invisible line separating north from south, while U.S. surrendered south of it. Negotiations failed to reunify the two halves, the North half being a soviet client state and the south half being backed by the U.S. In 150 North Korea invaded South Korea.

The Cold War another dispute over communism, which led the world towards divisions between groups of communist and non- communist nations. On one side were the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) and its Communist allies, often referred to as the Eastern bloc. On the other side were the United States and its democratic allies, usually referred to as the Western bloc. The Cold War was characterized by mutual distrust, suspicion, and misunderstanding by both the United States and the Soviet Union, and other allies.

The fact is history continually repeats itself and there is no way to escape this evil trend. We cannot escape these struggles because people hate, if we could do away with hate that some people harbor, then perhaps we could work towards world peace and understanding. Since we cannot remove the hate part of our brains because some people might label this as inhumane and illogical we will have to work towards world peace and understanding a different way. The saying goes " Do unto others as you would have them do unto you."

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Fuel - ethanol

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Introduction

Fuel ¨C material for burning, combustible matter as used in fires, can be a kind of

liquid or other material, which by its combustion with air in an internal combustion engine (Jobling, Longley, Page and Crawford, 10). There are many different kinds of fuels exist in the modern world. Some of them are natural resources and non-renewable while some others are man-made by processing the natural resources. However, the purpose of their existence is the same provide power and energy for human beings. Ethanol, is one of the most widely used alcohol fuels in the world. Its relationship with human beings is significantly close. This report will investigate the history of ethanol, its properties, its production, its uses and the environmental effect as well as its advantages and disadvantages of being an alternative fuel.

History

Ethanol¡¯s history as a transportation fuel goes back many years to Henry Ford and other transportation pioneers. In the 1880s, Ford built one of his first automobiles ¨C the quadricycle ¨C and fueled it on ethanol. However, a new fuel ¨C gasoline ¨C emerged dominant in the early twentieth century. Ethanol re-emerged for transportation use in the late 170s. Americans began filling their vehicles with ethanol ¨C blended gasoline (Ethanol history, 00).

Properties

Firstly, Ethanol has different physical properties from other alcohols. Its chemical formula is CHCHOH, which contains the hydroxyl (-OH) group, which as the functional group, determines the properties of ethanol. Therefore it also called ¡°ethyl alcohol¡± or ¡°grain alcohol¡± (Jobling, Longley, Page and Crawford, 10). Pure ethanol, which is known as ¡°absolute alcohol¡±, is a colorless, limpid, volatile liquid which is flammable and toxic and has a pungent taste. It boils at 78.4¡æ and melts at ¨C11.¡æ. It can be blended with water in all proportions and can be dissolved in acid to form very weak acid. Nearly all the ethanol used is a mixture of 5% ethanol and 5% water, known simply as 5% ethanol (ibid.).

On the other hand, ethanol has similar chemical properties to other alcohols. It undergoes all of the reactions of a primary alcohol, such as replacement of the hydrogen of the ¨COH group of an active metal. It also reacts with carboxylic acid to form esters and oxidizes therefore to form acetaldehyde (CHCHO). Like water, ethanol can react with Li, Na, K Mg and other active metals to liberate hydrogen. When it is dissolved in water, it can act both as weak acids and as weak bases (Jobling, Longley, Page and Crawford, 10).

Finally, ethanol has important properties as an alternative fuel. Ethanol has about / the energy content of gasoline and a high blending vapour pressure which will potentially increase evaporative losses from vehicle (Jobling, Longley, Page and Crawford, 10). It has high octane rating and very low cetane number, therefore it is an excellent fuel for petrol substitution in spark ignition engines but much less useful in compression ignition engines for diesel fuel substitution (ibid.). Its heating value is relatively lower, which requires over four times as much heat to vaporize it as compared to petrol and therefore a larger fuel pump and fuel jet orifices are required in engines converted to neat alcohol or high proportion blends (Energy authority of NSW, 186). Since it is a single substance, ethanol has a narrow boiling point, which results in that the common engine cannot provide enough fuel vapour to ignite because of its low starting vapour pressure so it cannot be used in neat form in existing vehicle engines without engine modification. However, it can be used as a 10% blend in petrol with only minor changes to the engine and has the similar performance (ibid.).

Production

There are many different methods for producing ethanol. Ethanol can be produced from starch crops such as grains and tubers or from crops containing fermentable as well as conversion of cellulosic materials such as agricultural residues and other herbaceous and woody biomass (Energy authority of NSW, 186). Fuel ethanol is commercially produced by converting the starch or fermentable sugars of agricultural crops (ibid.). However, the simple process of fermentation to ethanol by yeasts is the most promising of all the photo biological energy processes since it provides directly a liquid fuel. It can make ethanol from almost any plant material with varying degrees of success wheat, rice, potatoes, sugar cane, apple and so on (ibid.). The immediate product of fermentation is a water solution containing up to 15% ethanol. This ethanol can be concentrated by distillation. For crops contain simple sugars such as sugar cane, it can be fermented directly by yeasts whereas starch crops must have their starch converted to these simple sugars before fermented can proceed. Considerable quantities of energy are required for the starch processing and particularly the distillation step (ibid.). There are many ways for converting biomass to ethanol. However, the relative efficiencies of these methods may vary in different cases.

Ethanol is costly to produce. There are prospects for significant reduction in ethanol production costs over the next 10 years mainly through the development of technology for conversion of cellulosic materials. Production costs of ethanol based on conversion of existing mills. Cane is about 107 cents/litre and sorghum is about 56 cents/litre (Jobling, Longley, Page and Crawford, 10). Developments in technology in recent years have reduced ethanol production costs through reduction in energy use. A few new technologies, which are not yet commercialized, have potential to reduce plant-operating costs 10% over the next 5 years, such as bacterial fermentation and yeast/enzyme immobilization (ibid.).

Environmental effects

A major problem for fuels of transportation is the vehicle emission. For ethanol, the exhaust emissions of hydrocarbons with 10% ethanol blends have been shown to decrease by from 1% to %. In addition, there is a significant reduction in carbon monoxide (CO) emission. However, nitrogen oxides emission from vehicles using ethanol blends increase by approximately 5% ¨C 6%. Moreover, carbon dioxide (CO) emissions also occur from the ethanol production process. This is actually the biomass derived, which is one of the sources of greenhouse gas (Jobling, Longley, Page and Crawford, 10).

There are also some problems which occur during the production process. The production of ethanol produces liquid effluent, which is 10-15 times the volume of the ethanol produced and these liquid wastes contain high chemical and biological demands, which could effect the surrounding environment negatively very much. They are discharged to streams, sewer and ocean after suitable prior treatment. Solid wastes such as mill mud and boiler ash would be mixed at the factory prior to distribution and therefore they can act as a soil conditioner and fertilizer (Jobling, Longley, Page and Crawford, 10).

Safety features

In a fuel ethanol plant, the potential threats to workers¡¯ health and safety are explosion, fire hazards and exposure to toxic or corrosive chemicals used in process. However, the storage and distribution of ethanol are well understood processes and therefore no significant problems are to be expected if the processes are operated correctly (Energy authority of NSW, 186).

Advantages and disadvantages

Ethanol has many positive features as an alternative fuel. Firstly, it is renewable and relatively safe; secondly, its energy density is higher than some other alternative fuels, such as methanol; furthermore, it can improve agricultural economies by providing farmers with a stable market for certain crops and finally the use of ethanol can decrease emissions of certain emissions (Energy authority of NSW, 186).

However, there are some disadvantages with the use of ethanol as an alternative fuel. It costs more money to produce and use; it has a smaller energy density than gasoline. Presently, it takes about 1.5 times more ethanol than gasoline to travel the same distance. Moreover, it requires vast amounts of land to grow the crops needed to generate fuel and the process for conversion of crops to ethanol is relatively inefficient. Finally, ethanol production can generate waste products, which is extremely toxic to aquatic that must be disposed (Energy authority of NSW, 186).

Conclusion

To conclude, ethanol is one of the most well known alcohols in the world and has been widely used as a liquid alternative fuel in both blend and neat form. It is one non-oil renewable resource and has relatively safe properties. These significant properties have shown that ethanol has a great potential to become an important fuel in human beings¡¯ life.

References

Energy authority of NSW. (186). NSW SUGAR CANE TO FUEL ETHANOL. Australia New South Wales Government.

Ethanol-history. (00). www.ethanol-crfa.ca/history.htm

Ethanol/methanol vehicles. (00). www.consumerenergycenter.org/transportation/afv/ethanol.htm

Jobling, J. H, Longley, J. A, Page, D. L and Crawford, R. E. (10). INVESTIGATION INTO ETHANOL AND ALTERNATIVE TRANSPORT FUELS IN NEW SOUTH WALES. Australia New South Wales Government.

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The Elements of Science Fiction in Asimov's Foundation

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The Elements of Science Fiction in Asimov's Foundation

[This essay explores those characteristics of the novel Foundation, which are peculiar to the genre of Science Fiction.]

The most fundamental and obvious element of Science Fiction is its dependence on imagined technological advancements. The SF writer exploits the gap between scientific theory and practice to create a world, or at least circumstances, very different from our own reality and yet very believable because of the scientific ‘logic' behind it all. The SF writer must provide some kind of scientific explanation as to how the fantastic things that are being talked about have been made possible. Asimov, in his novel Foundation, introduces hyper-spatial travel based on the concept of hyper-space, to make the existence of the Galactic Empire possible. Nuclear power supplies the energy requirements and the use of coal and oil, as Salvor Hardin says in the novel, is considered ‘barbaric'. Trantor, the capital of this futuristic Empire has gone a step further to ‘make use of the temperature difference between the ground level and a couple of miles under' to supply all the energy required. The ‘glorious' picture is completed in the first few pages with Gaal Dornick following a light beam for a guide and taking a taxi which rises straight up into the air.

Because of this creation of a new, invented world, it becomes essential that the reader be informed about many things that the inhabitants of this world take for granted. This feature of ‘info-dumping' is quite peculiar to Science Fiction, as writers of other genres need not explain such things as how people travel and which fuels they use. A good SF writer does not get carried away by the brilliance of his innovative ideas, thereby disrupting the flow of the story and burdening the reader with too many facts. Instead, the information is provided in small capsules as and when possible with the least intrusion. Asimov uses various devices for info-dumping to avoid monotony. The first one that we encounter is the use of metatext, the Encyclopedia Galactica, which not only informs the reader but is also the ultimate point of reference. Extracts from this invented encyclopedia introduce some characters of the novel and give glimpses of the kind of world, with its social and political milieu, in which they live. Also, the use of an encyclopedia strikes the reader as a scholarly approach, in keeping with the ‘logic' strategy, while serving an important narrative function. The second device is the most commonly used one; that of the authorial voice, but Asimov takes care never to overuse it. Instead, he uses conversation, where at least one of the characters is either young and inexperienced, or does not conform to the prevalent ideas of that society. Gaal Dornick is a provincial boy who is visiting Trantor for the first time and (like the reader) does not know much about it. It is natural for him to ask questions and the answers that he gets inform the reader as well. He and the reader are thus together informed that the people in Trantor hardly ever see the sun or the open sky and actually have to buy a ticket to do so. In another instance, Salvor Hardin disagrees with the notions of the Encyclopedists and the resulting argument is informative, while contributing to the sequence of events at the same time.

Having established a scientific base for the course of events described, SF is not pre-occupied with the concerns of science but the effects that the changed circumstances of the invented world, have on the human society. Alternative visions of the world order can be explored through the world of the novel. In Foundation, though we have the technological advancements as the essential backdrop, much more important is the creation of the field of ‘psychohistory' in the novel a branch of mathematics which can be used to predict ‘the reactions of human conglomerates to fixed social and economic stimuli'. Psychohistory is thus a kind of advanced sociology just as the cars of this world can fly instead of just moving on wheels, the sociology of this world (known as psychohistory) can predict the behaviour of a large society, instead of just studying it. And it is the behaviour of human society that concerns the novel. Science Fiction, thus, simply uses science as a means to provide a larger canvass to explore the problems faced by the human race and the possible ways to tackle them. No wonder then, that SF writers prefer the term ‘SF' to ‘science fiction' since it can be expanded in various ways speculative fiction, sociological fiction and so on (Maxim Jakubowski and Edward James in the introduction to The Profession of Science Fiction).

Speculation is at the heart of SF the SF writer asks the question, "What if…?" and tries to find out answers, opening the path to exploring any number of possibilities. During the early 140's, the time at which Foundation was written, the most relevant "What if…?" question for an English author would be, "What if the British Empire ultimately falls apart?", which had become a concrete possibility by that time. It was natural to speculate on the future of the world organized anew and the governing forces that would shape the future of human civilization. Asimov creates a metaphor of the British Empire in the form of the declining Galactic Empire, in at least as much that the fall of the Galactic Empire is inevitable and even desirable. Hari Seldon says, "We cannot stop the Fall. We do not wish to; for Empire culture has lost whatever virility and worth it once had." Asimov then goes on to explore how peaceful, progressive conditions can be maintained and how various different societies, here belonging to different planets, can be bound together in a desirable relationship, beneficial for all. Through the pages of the novel, first diplomacy, then religion and finally, trade are tested as tools to serve this end. Asimov's speculation concerning trade has proved to be fairly accurate in the present-day world, with the U.S. being a super-power, essentially due to its economic strength and global trade relations.

Unlike the so-called ‘mainstream' fiction, SF does not concern itself with the study of individual characters or human relationships. The essence of SF lies in exploring the collective problems faced by a whole society. As Maxim Jakubowski and Edward James put it, the ‘future development of human society and technology, the possibilities inherent in scientific and social development' are among the basic themes of SF, clothed in action and adventure. In keeping with this SF tradition, the characters in Foundation are not important as individuals but only as people affecting or being affected by the ‘Seldon Plan'- the plan to lead to the establishment of a strong, peaceful, and prosperous Second Empire. The petty Chief Commissioner may ask the narrow-minded question why ‘should we concern ourselves with events of five centuries distance?' but for the psychohistorian, the mathematician-cum-social scientist Hari Seldon, these events are of "overpowering concern" so as to save "one thousand generations of suffering humanity". In spite of Seldon's concern for humanity, he is not important as a character, which is emphasized by the fact that by the end of the very first section of the novel, he declares, "I am finished," but the story has just begun.

The protagonist(s) of SF are ‘types' as imposed by its readership, consisting of two sections of people. The first is of adolescents, often male and therefore, the young, teenaged protagonist. The second section is that of the marginalized, newly immigrant working class and hence, the immigrant from a marginal planet is the category to which most of the protagonists of Foundation belong. On the first page of the novel, we meet Gaal Dornick, ‘just a country boy' who ‘had lived all his life on the world of Synnax, which circled a star at the edges of Blue Drift' and comes to Trantor for the first time. He is naïve enough to believe that his rights as an Imperial Citizen will enable him to have a hearing with the Emperor, when he is wrongly arrested. In another novel of the series, the Prelude to Foundation, we come to know that even the great psychohistorian Seldon originates from a marginal planet. The same is the case of Hober Mallow, the last important protagonist of Foundation. Coming from the planet Smyrno, he is an ‘Outlander' and has a ‘taint in the blood'. Yet it is he who saves the Foundation, working in accordance to the Seldon Plan. Foundation thus presents not one, but a number of protagonists typical to SF.

Lastly, SF portrays the human race as being ‘alone', facing Otherness or the immensity of creation, unprotected by supernatural beings or God. The human race is forced to fall back on its own resources to hunt for solutions and to survive. The planet of Foundation also faces a number of crises and the use of diplomacy, religion and trade are explored in turn. The Seldon Plan itself is a protective measure to save humanity from ten thousand years of barbarism and anarchy, shortening the interregnum between the declining Galactic Empire and the establishment of the Second Empire to one millennium. The interregnum cannot be completely done away with because of the enormity; the huge numbers of people and vast scale of time and space. To establish an Empire of ‘quantillions' of people requires a considerable effort by a large number of people over a time period of a thousand years.

The elements of science fiction discussed above, viz., the dependence on scientific advancements, info-dumping, speculation, the importance of a whole society as opposed to an individual, the typical SF protagonists and the immensity of creation faced by humans; not only establish Foundation as belonging to the genre of Science Fiction but also as a seminal text of SF, a classic in its own right.

Bibliography

Isaac Asimov Foundation. London, Harper Collins, 15.

Maxim Jakubowski and Edward James The Profession of Science Fiction.

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