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Jurate Faddoul TMA 01
Question part (a)
Describe some of the ways in which gender categories can be used to explain the formation of gender identities in young children?
Identity is not a personality. Identity needs some choice from our part. We choose to identify with some people and refuse to with others. Identity can be defined by similarity (us) and difference (them). Identities can also be represented by symbols (words, certain groups etc) that are important in defining the ways in which we share identities with others. Identities are formed by choice and social influences. They can change with age, experience or culture.
There are several theories on how identities are formed. According to G.H. Mead, by constructing identities we imagine ourselves and how others see us. We perceive that through symbols. They are used to signal other people that we identify or not, with them. E. Goffman focused on everyday interaction. He says that we present ourselves to the world by undertaking certain roles that are already written. It is as if we are in a play, acting out the imagination of a secret director. Our actions are important in how we present ourselves, what kind of identities we create. We, like actors, are performing for the audience- surrounding people, colleagues or friends. Most of activities in our everyday life such as speaking require someone listening. But, even if the parts are written for us (student, secretary etc) we can put our own imprint onto them by interpreting what is expected from us.
Turner developed a self-categorisation theory. It states that identities are shaped by people looking at social categories and deciding whether or not they are in that category (Kath Woodward, 000, p.47). If they consider themselves to be part of the category, that category becomes part of their identity. Turner claims that similarity and difference influence self-categorisation and identity.
Another theory, by S. Freud, claims that our unconscious influence choices we make later in life. Unconscious mind is the repository of repressed feelings and desires- often from childhood. (Kath Woodward, 000, p. 15). Freud says that as children we repress our needs because we are not allowed to do or have many things. This hides in our unconscious and emerges later, thus forming our identity. Freud argues that we have not one identity, but infinite number of forms. Psychoanalysis enters us into concept of gender. Gender describes the systematic structuring of certain behaviour and practices which are associated with women or with men in particular societies (Kath Woodward, 000, p.1) It was crucial to Freud's theory. Children were seen as having sexual desires that obviously were not fulfilled and merged into unconscious. Freud thought that identification with parent of the same sex was vital for positive psycho-sexual development of the child. Freud's theory suggests that we have little influence in forming our own identities as our childhood experiences will define it for us. We could bring more agency into our identities through therapy.
Gender is the foundation of the identity. First of all, we need to differentiate between sex and gender. Sex is a biological classification while gender is cultural and social. Gender identities are also often related to masculine and feminine traits. These are usually stereotypical and vary from society to society or century to century. What are the influences for gender categories? There's a biological factor, of course. One clear difference between sexes is that women can bear children and men cannot. Males and females also differ in terms of chromosomes, hormones, brain size and secondary sexual characteristics. Males and females are often presented as two quite distinct categories. How do children learn that they are girls or boys? At birth, a baby is assigned to the male or female gender on inspection of its genitals. She or he develops gender identity and learns a gender role- a set of expectations about the behaviour considered appropriate for people of that gender. Children see the world in radically different way from adults and they learn gradually of an adult perspective. Although a child of or can label itself correctly as a boy or a girl, it does not know at this age that a person's gender is based on physical factors, nor that a person's gender cannot change. At this age they also differentiate between gender appropriate toys (although this might be parent's influence). Also, with society's views and norms changing it is particularly easy for children to get confused about what is appropriate for certain gender. Children don't see clearly defined examples anymore. How do you describe a househusband as a child? A mum? If a child is dropped at school by his father everyday and other children by their mothers, he/she accepts it very easily that dad=mum. This is illustrated quite well in example (Kath Woodward, 000, p.57) in course book. The child honestly believes it's possible for him to be a mum when he grows up.
It also depends on what kind of environment the child grows up in. If a child is raised in a traditional family, than he/she is more likely to base their gender identity on stereotypical masculine or feminine traits. Single parent families are different and such a child will be probably more accommodating to a variety of traits.
With time culturally created gender identities will be supported by biological knowledge. Children from an age of 5+ start learning that there might be multiple gender identities, that they are not as rigid as previously understood, but flexible and changing.
Even if gender categories become more flexible they are still maintained based on primary experiences. In the research conducted by Francis (Kath Woodward, 000, p. 5) children were asked to engage in role-play. Most of the boys chose what could be described as typical male positions (dominating, bossy, loud) and girls typical female
(sensible, submissive). Francis points out that not all of children took up typical roles. It could be that these children were not raised in traditional families and had no stigma attached to behave in a certain way.
Gender categories are only a part of our identities. There's also ethnicity and social class. They can influence our gender identity or vice versa. Take the film ‘Billy Elliot' for example. It was an unthinkable thing for a boy in a working class to want to be a dancer. A child with not such a strong character could have succumbed to the society's pressure and given up.
I tried to look at some of the ways in how gender categories influence gender identities in young children. Children ‘s knowledge grows as the biological knowledge is added to the socio-cultural. As with many subjects in social sciences there's no certain way that we can use as an exemplary route. It all depends on many factors that change with different approaches of scientists, cultures and centuries.
Word count (including quotes and references 1118)
References
Woodward K.(ed) (000) Questioning identity gender, class, nation, London, Routledge/The Open University
Question part (b)
To what extent have changing gender identities affected the performance of girls and boys at school in the contemporary UK?
Medical journals in the 1870's warned of the terrible consequences for women if they tried to reject their reproductive role by using contraception or entering higher education. These consequences included ‘death or severe illness..leucorrhea, menorraghia, cancer, mania leading to suicide, and repulsive nymphomania'.
(Stephanie Garrett, 1,p.10)
The aim of equal educational opportunity for all is a relatively recent one. Until the 175 Sex Discrimination Act was passed it was legal for educational institutions to treat males and females differently, both in terms of the subjects made available to them and the numbers of students of particular sex allowed on the courses. This treatment was justified by the argument that males and females had different intellectual capacity and interests. It was a popular belief that male brain was larger in size than females therefore more capable. Class background was also important and had an influence on the opportunities open to different sexes. Girls from aristocratic background were taught ladylike subjects such as embroidery, music, French while boys were taught algebra and Latin. For working class girls there was little chance in receiving any sort of education and those who learned were offered subjects that emphasized their future role as housewives and mothers- needlework, laundry and housekeeping. Boys were not given the chance to study domestic subjects, they were offered algebra or arithmetic instead. During the years it changed slightly, although the only girls who could learn scientific subjects were from aristocratic background.
In the beginning of the twentieth century it was more desirable for women to follow domestically-oriented curriculum. The 16 Hadow Report, in addition to claiming that girls were capable of less prolonged mental effort than boys and prone to neurotic disturbances, argued that the nation's prosperity depended on girls being trained to be good housewives. (Stephanie Garrett, 1, p.6)
In 167 a resolution was passed by the United Nations which stated that ‘ all appropriate measures shall be taken to ensure girls and women, married or unmarried, equal rights with men in education at all levels' and which called for equality of access to courses and subjects, and for both sexes to be offered the same choice of curricula, examinations and qualified staff, whether the institution was co-educational or not. (Stephanie Garrett, 1, p.6)
It is difficult to imagine that what we consider to be ‘normal' situation at schools came into power so recently. Recent reports are quite opposite to the popular belief that male are more capable than female. In fact, they are so different, that boys' underperformance at school was called a ‘crisis'. Is it really so? Do girls do better at school than boys? And why it only was noticed recently? As I mentioned earlier, girls were not seen as ‘academic material'. They had one purpose in life and that was to be mothers and wives. Girls had no chances to show their abilities if they had them. It might be that the recent ‘crisis' was never paid any attention to as all the emphasis was on boys' education. It didn't matter if the girls were under-performing! In this changing society girls finally are being recognised as equal members and statistics are recording their achievements as well as boys'. Also, statistics are a very powerful tool- one can manipulate the data quite easily. As the course book notices, most of the girls are entered for less prestigious awards, but the statistic reading is taken from overall performance (Kath Woodward, 000, p.6).
Other reasons why girls are doing better than boys at some subjects may lay in the way that girls learn. Girls and boys prefer different types of classroom activities. Girls prefer to write notes and essays and are often reluctant to participate in discussion, while boys enjoy a discussion and participating in the class. Girls are also more likely to do well on verbal tests and boys on spatial. It shows that girls and boys have different problem-solving abilities. Can it be that some of the tests are constructed in such a way that it makes it easier for particular sex to answer them?
Some of the reasons may be because of the changes in cultural structures. Women do not just stay at home and look after children and men go to work. Women are having more opportunities than ever, some of them earn the same amount or more, than men. It has been quite a blow for men to suddenly realise they are not the main bread-winner in the family. Also, the labour market is not as valuable as it was before. Such changes in culture have resulted in development in youth subculture- ‘the macho-lads' (Kath Woodward, 000, p. 67). These are normally youths who have no potential in labour market and do not identify with schooling.
There can be many reasons why recent reports are showing girls as being more successful. Family influences, culture they grow up in (e.g. gypsy girls are not allowed any education at all), social class, race. Gender does play a role but it is not necessarily the major one.
Word count (including quotes and references 841)
References
Stephanie Garrett (1) Gender, London, Routledge
Woodward K. (ed) (000) Questioning identity gender, class, nation, London, Routledge/The Open University
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