Aborigines

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Aborigines

Aboriginals are Australians whose ancestors were the first people to live in Australia. The word comes from the Latein phrase ab origine, meaning from the beginning. When spelled with a small "a", the word aborigines refers to any people whose ancestors were the first to live in a country. You can write Aborigine also like Aboriginal, both has the same meaning.

History

Most scientists believe the ancestors of today`s Aboriginals first arrived in Australia as early as 50,000 years ago. They came from Southeast Asia. 50,000 years ago, the sea level was about 100 meters lower than the today`s sea level, because of the ice-age. So there was land between Southeast Asia and Australia and the Aboriginals could walk over. They were the onliest human beings on the fifth continent and so they strayed all over the country. Aboriginals lived in a great harmony with their natural environment. Before the fateful day in 1788, when James Cook discovered the East-side of the island continent, there were living about 750,000 Aboriginals. There were 500 tribes, each with its own language, its own religion, and with its own tradition. But when the first English settlers arrived, all this changed

It`s the year 1780, streactly speaking the 6th of january, when some Aboriginals saw the British fleet on the horizon. They shouted "Warra, warra" when the big ships dropped their anchor- run away! But they were helpless. James Cook had discovered Australia and claimed the land for Britain at once. And when he told the English king that the land he had found was great to live and work on, the king had an idea. This idea was perhaps great for the English people, but not for the people living in Australia long before Mr. Cook came to the island continent.

In May 1787 the first ships, sailing to Australia, left the English port. Governor Phillip sailed with 570 male and 160 female convicts, about 00 British soldiers to serve as guards, about 0 wifes of soldiers, and a few children. The group traveled in eleven ships. The first ship reached Botany Bay, on Australia`s east coast, on January 18. Phillip`s ship arrived at the bay on January 1, the rest of the ships arrived on January 0 in the year 1788. The British king had decided to build big prisons because the English ones weren`t enough for all the men and women, who did something wrong. From

this day on, the white settlement grew and grew. The first order was to cut off the trees, because they had to build the prisons. This was the beginning of the city of Sydney.

When the English people arrived, the number of Aboriginals was estimated at 750.000, and within one century the number sank at only 50.000. They were hunted, shot, poisoned, burnt to death and expelled wherever they stood in the way of the white settlers. They were treated like animals. A very sad capital of the Australian history was the baiting of Aboriginals on the Tasmanian island in 180, organized by governor Phillip. Almost all Aboriginals were killed. The two hundred surviving Aboriginals were send to Flinder `s Island, where the last surviving Aboriginal died in 1876. Many Aboriginals died also of deceases, which their immunesystem didn`t resist.

The country was called terra nullius, which is Latein and means that the land didn`t belong to anyone before James Cook arrived. Mr. Cook lied, when he told the king, that there were no people, when he discovered the country. Aboriginals had no more rights to own the land ( and all the other things of course...) than Cangaroos or Emus. He said nothing about the Aboriginals, who were the real owners of the land. The white settlers called them a primitive people.

Cook claimed the region for Great Britain and named it New South Wales. The new colony had to support itself by farming. All the prisoners worked in groups on farms near the settlement. During the 170`s, the colonial government began to borrow or even sell land to millitary officers and freed convicts. At the same time the first free settlers arrived by sailing at Australia`s coast. The first free sttlers were from Great Britain mainly. Later, they came from whole Europe and other countries, too.

In the second half of the last century, the "missionary states" gave the first reservations to Aboriginals. The missionaries put the "wild" into clothes, tried to make them believe in other gods and to show them, what a normal day in western civilization was. The Aboriginals were forced to live like the white people. But all these things made problems only. Aboriginals couldn`t live at a blow in "modern times", what it was, for the Aboriginals of course. At the end their number sank and sank again. The white missionaries hadn`t succes with their mission. The Aboriginal belief sat in their soul, that`s why the white people couldn`t kill it. In the end of such a mission the Aboriginal often lost his "power to live". That was because of the "cultural shock". An example for this was Bennelong. He lived in the governor`s house and learned to speak and write English. In 17 he was sent to England for presenting him George III. After all this, when he was back in Australia, he didn`t know, who he really was. Wether he was a real white now, or still a black Aboriginal, he just didn`know that. So he became an alcoholic.

But the Aboriginals did survive. After it was sure, that they would survive as a human race which seemed impossible some years before and some years after 100 something happened that nobody had expected Their number rose up again. At least the number of half-breed Aboriginals rose to 65000, which is nearly 1,5% of the whole population. Most of the 40000 full-bloods live in reservation land, lieing throughout in the dryest parts of Australia.

Perhaps it was the result of the descision to give them more land to live there, to live their traditional way of life again. And to stop all those missions "an Aboriginal must think and act like a white".

The last discovered tribe was the Pintubi-tribe. Some of the men and women first saw white people in 177 (!). Their territory was at the border of the two states Northern Territory and Western Australia.

There are 50 reservations. Most of them lie in the Northern Territory and Western Australia. Whites aren`t allowed to go into them. But from all the Aboriginals, who decided to stay in or near a town, only 10% has a job and works. The others live on rent or they are on the dole. Often all the money is spent for alcohol. The way these people live is very bad, sad to see and reminds how the people in the Third World live. That the chance to die before the first age is reached is four times higher by an Aboriginal baby than the chances to die before the first age of an Australian baby. And that Aboriginal children get a worser education, than white children. That the probability to become unemployed is six times higher, that the danger to come to prison is higher and that the life expectancy of an Aboriginal is about 0 years lower are all things that show that there is still a big difference between Whites and Aboriginals.

While the Aboriginals on the country are having the chance to live the traditional way again ,the Aboriginals in the cities often go alcoholic and lose all their connection to the culture. The Dreamtime is missing them often. So they take their connection to it with "petrol sniffing". Since the end of the 60`s the Aboriginals have the franchise, a right to get the same wages like other Australians, short They got all rights an Australian has, too. So they are incluced in all the statistics of the population. That shows that the Aboriginals in the Northern Territory made 1% of the whole population. In whole Australia and in the other states only under %. Although the two races are having equal rights today, the Aborigines get financial subsidy, which Whites doesn`t get. That this money is often used for buying alcohol, makes many Australians angry. But it was their own fault.

In 171 the first Aboriginal was voted to the parliament and in 176 the Aboriginal Land Rights Act was made. It helps the Aboriginals to get their land back, also the land, which isn`t in the reservation land. With this law they can get land over the whole continent back, the only thing they must do to get the land is to make sure, that there was a special connection to the land they want back. In 15 50% of the Northern Territory belongs to Aboriginals. On the land they own are many sights of the nature, National Parks and many vein of ores. The High Court made sure that the continent belongs now and before 10 years to the Aboriginals. So the word terra nullius doesn`t exist any more for Australia.

Traditional Culture

Aborigines were a people of hunters and gatherers. But only the men went out to hunt and also only the women went out for gathering plants. Men hunted large sea and land animals, using spears, harpoons, nets, traps, clubs, knives and boomerangs. Mostly cangaroos were hunted because they lived all over Australia. Women gathered vegetables, fruits, turtle and bird eggs and small animals such as insects, lizards, rodents and shellfish. Boomerangs were used the first times before 10.000 years and only at some tribes this kind of hunting is used. The Boomerang which ourselves first think of, when we are thinking of Australia, the one who comes back to you, is only a toy for Aboriginals. The real hunting-Boomerang is heavier and doesn`t come back to you. They kept no food for bad times. When there was no more food at one place they went on. The whole continent belonged to them, so they could stray over it and live wherever they liked to. When the food was enough for all for a long time, they stayed and a fast fireplace was built. A safe place to sleep was made, too. For that purpose an umbrella was made. It was made of leafs and shrubs and it was built against the wind. For shelter, they found protection under rocks or built huts out of branches, grasses or other materials they found.

The number of men and women in one tribe adapt to the productiveness of the nature. Often, there were 0 to 50 people in one group. When it became suddenly very dry or something like this, the group was divided into two or more groups, but only when it was really neccessary. After this they strayed over their land or they wandered through larger areas. One area (territory), of this kind, belonged to one tribe. So a tribe was a connection of some family-groups. A tribe had no political chief or formal government. However, respected men expert in tribal law and customs generally made the main tribal decisions and directed the ceremonies. Aboriginals also belonged by birth, either through their mothers or fathers, to local descent groups and to clans.

The frontier of one territory was adapted to the productiveness of one territory In areas near the coast, where the land was very moist, the territories were smaller. In the land where it was dry the territories were larger. So Aboriginals lived completely in dependence of the nature. Different estimates say things about one Aboriginal in a coast area on 1,5km², over one Aboriginal, living in an area where it is dryer, but a river is near has 4km² for hisself and the Aboriginal, living in the desert, he can have 0km² to wander through for its self. That means a tribe of 0 people living in the desert can have 700km² to live!

Men and women, belonging to the same tribe had the same culture. That means they lived the same way, had the same language and same religion. Often English settlers believed, that there existed only one language, but they were wrong! Each tribe had an own language.

The only thing they all had together was the "Dreamtime". The Dreamtime is the story of the evolution of the earth. Religion linked the Aboriginals to the land and nature through ancestral beings who, according the Aboriginal beliefs, had created the world in a time long ago. These beings never died, but merged with nature to live in sacred beliefs and rituals. In this way, the Aboriginals could renew their ties with the Dreamtime. Where those creatures walked, a hill was formed, where they cryed, a lake appeared and where they bled, a river bed was made. After the whole evolution they went back into the earth. So each stone, rock, lake and mountain has its own history, which is very important for Aboriginals. So when they are born, has the place where they were born a very special connection to each Aboriginal.

Most Aboriginals have dark brown hair that may be straight, wavy or curly. Their skin colour ranges from tan to dark brown and almost black. Most Aboriginals are of medium height and have slender limbs.

Aboriginals wore ornaments and waistbands, but little clothing. In cold areas,

some wore cloaks of cangaroo or possum fur.

Aboriginals are famous for their arts and crafts, because they show imagination and skill. They painted on bark and stone and engraved designs on rock surfaces. Their cave paintings and other drawings are world famous. The Aborigials also carved figures from wood and stone and painted them. Some wove beautiful bags, baskets and mats of twine and cord made from bark, root fibers, fur and human hair. But they also expressed themselves artistically through music, song, and spoken literature.

The greatest succes of Aboriginals in the last years was the break-through into the international rock charts world wide from the Aboriginal Band Yothu Yindi. The bandleader Mandawuy Yunupingu has written this song

Djapana

Watch the sun Do dream

She is sinking like a ship Do dream

The sunset My sunset dream

Is leading me into the spirit

Back to the far land of my fathers To the children of the country

This history I say

Is in my head Do not make a fool of you

It is so clear From the wise men of the whites

I remember That would only mean

Everything was mine More sorrow and injury

Everything was mine To our people

Dreams in the sunset To our country

Oh djapana

You human beings outside Oh djapana

Why are you so unjust Live this, live this

To the people of this country Dream of the sunset

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Gender categories

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Jurate Faddoul TMA 01

Question part (a)

Describe some of the ways in which gender categories can be used to explain the formation of gender identities in young children?

Identity is not a personality. Identity needs some choice from our part. We choose to identify with some people and refuse to with others. Identity can be defined by similarity (us) and difference (them). Identities can also be represented by symbols (words, certain groups etc) that are important in defining the ways in which we share identities with others. Identities are formed by choice and social influences. They can change with age, experience or culture.

There are several theories on how identities are formed. According to G.H. Mead, by constructing identities we imagine ourselves and how others see us. We perceive that through symbols. They are used to signal other people that we identify or not, with them. E. Goffman focused on everyday interaction. He says that we present ourselves to the world by undertaking certain roles that are already written. It is as if we are in a play, acting out the imagination of a secret director. Our actions are important in how we present ourselves, what kind of identities we create. We, like actors, are performing for the audience- surrounding people, colleagues or friends. Most of activities in our everyday life such as speaking require someone listening. But, even if the parts are written for us (student, secretary etc) we can put our own imprint onto them by interpreting what is expected from us.

Turner developed a self-categorisation theory. It states that identities are shaped by people looking at social categories and deciding whether or not they are in that category (Kath Woodward, 000, p.47). If they consider themselves to be part of the category, that category becomes part of their identity. Turner claims that similarity and difference influence self-categorisation and identity.

Another theory, by S. Freud, claims that our unconscious influence choices we make later in life. Unconscious mind is the repository of repressed feelings and desires- often from childhood. (Kath Woodward, 000, p. 15). Freud says that as children we repress our needs because we are not allowed to do or have many things. This hides in our unconscious and emerges later, thus forming our identity. Freud argues that we have not one identity, but infinite number of forms. Psychoanalysis enters us into concept of gender. Gender describes the systematic structuring of certain behaviour and practices which are associated with women or with men in particular societies (Kath Woodward, 000, p.1) It was crucial to Freud's theory. Children were seen as having sexual desires that obviously were not fulfilled and merged into unconscious. Freud thought that identification with parent of the same sex was vital for positive psycho-sexual development of the child. Freud's theory suggests that we have little influence in forming our own identities as our childhood experiences will define it for us. We could bring more agency into our identities through therapy.

Gender is the foundation of the identity. First of all, we need to differentiate between sex and gender. Sex is a biological classification while gender is cultural and social. Gender identities are also often related to masculine and feminine traits. These are usually stereotypical and vary from society to society or century to century. What are the influences for gender categories? There's a biological factor, of course. One clear difference between sexes is that women can bear children and men cannot. Males and females also differ in terms of chromosomes, hormones, brain size and secondary sexual characteristics. Males and females are often presented as two quite distinct categories. How do children learn that they are girls or boys? At birth, a baby is assigned to the male or female gender on inspection of its genitals. She or he develops gender identity and learns a gender role- a set of expectations about the behaviour considered appropriate for people of that gender. Children see the world in radically different way from adults and they learn gradually of an adult perspective. Although a child of or can label itself correctly as a boy or a girl, it does not know at this age that a person's gender is based on physical factors, nor that a person's gender cannot change. At this age they also differentiate between gender appropriate toys (although this might be parent's influence). Also, with society's views and norms changing it is particularly easy for children to get confused about what is appropriate for certain gender. Children don't see clearly defined examples anymore. How do you describe a househusband as a child? A mum? If a child is dropped at school by his father everyday and other children by their mothers, he/she accepts it very easily that dad=mum. This is illustrated quite well in example (Kath Woodward, 000, p.57) in course book. The child honestly believes it's possible for him to be a mum when he grows up.

It also depends on what kind of environment the child grows up in. If a child is raised in a traditional family, than he/she is more likely to base their gender identity on stereotypical masculine or feminine traits. Single parent families are different and such a child will be probably more accommodating to a variety of traits.

With time culturally created gender identities will be supported by biological knowledge. Children from an age of 5+ start learning that there might be multiple gender identities, that they are not as rigid as previously understood, but flexible and changing.

Even if gender categories become more flexible they are still maintained based on primary experiences. In the research conducted by Francis (Kath Woodward, 000, p. 5) children were asked to engage in role-play. Most of the boys chose what could be described as typical male positions (dominating, bossy, loud) and girls typical female

(sensible, submissive). Francis points out that not all of children took up typical roles. It could be that these children were not raised in traditional families and had no stigma attached to behave in a certain way.

Gender categories are only a part of our identities. There's also ethnicity and social class. They can influence our gender identity or vice versa. Take the film ‘Billy Elliot' for example. It was an unthinkable thing for a boy in a working class to want to be a dancer. A child with not such a strong character could have succumbed to the society's pressure and given up.

I tried to look at some of the ways in how gender categories influence gender identities in young children. Children ‘s knowledge grows as the biological knowledge is added to the socio-cultural. As with many subjects in social sciences there's no certain way that we can use as an exemplary route. It all depends on many factors that change with different approaches of scientists, cultures and centuries.

Word count (including quotes and references 1118)

References

Woodward K.(ed) (000) Questioning identity gender, class, nation, London, Routledge/The Open University

Question part (b)

To what extent have changing gender identities affected the performance of girls and boys at school in the contemporary UK?

Medical journals in the 1870's warned of the terrible consequences for women if they tried to reject their reproductive role by using contraception or entering higher education. These consequences included ‘death or severe illness..leucorrhea, menorraghia, cancer, mania leading to suicide, and repulsive nymphomania'.

(Stephanie Garrett, 1,p.10)

The aim of equal educational opportunity for all is a relatively recent one. Until the 175 Sex Discrimination Act was passed it was legal for educational institutions to treat males and females differently, both in terms of the subjects made available to them and the numbers of students of particular sex allowed on the courses. This treatment was justified by the argument that males and females had different intellectual capacity and interests. It was a popular belief that male brain was larger in size than females therefore more capable. Class background was also important and had an influence on the opportunities open to different sexes. Girls from aristocratic background were taught ladylike subjects such as embroidery, music, French while boys were taught algebra and Latin. For working class girls there was little chance in receiving any sort of education and those who learned were offered subjects that emphasized their future role as housewives and mothers- needlework, laundry and housekeeping. Boys were not given the chance to study domestic subjects, they were offered algebra or arithmetic instead. During the years it changed slightly, although the only girls who could learn scientific subjects were from aristocratic background.

In the beginning of the twentieth century it was more desirable for women to follow domestically-oriented curriculum. The 16 Hadow Report, in addition to claiming that girls were capable of less prolonged mental effort than boys and prone to neurotic disturbances, argued that the nation's prosperity depended on girls being trained to be good housewives. (Stephanie Garrett, 1, p.6)

In 167 a resolution was passed by the United Nations which stated that ‘ all appropriate measures shall be taken to ensure girls and women, married or unmarried, equal rights with men in education at all levels' and which called for equality of access to courses and subjects, and for both sexes to be offered the same choice of curricula, examinations and qualified staff, whether the institution was co-educational or not. (Stephanie Garrett, 1, p.6)

It is difficult to imagine that what we consider to be ‘normal' situation at schools came into power so recently. Recent reports are quite opposite to the popular belief that male are more capable than female. In fact, they are so different, that boys' underperformance at school was called a ‘crisis'. Is it really so? Do girls do better at school than boys? And why it only was noticed recently? As I mentioned earlier, girls were not seen as ‘academic material'. They had one purpose in life and that was to be mothers and wives. Girls had no chances to show their abilities if they had them. It might be that the recent ‘crisis' was never paid any attention to as all the emphasis was on boys' education. It didn't matter if the girls were under-performing! In this changing society girls finally are being recognised as equal members and statistics are recording their achievements as well as boys'. Also, statistics are a very powerful tool- one can manipulate the data quite easily. As the course book notices, most of the girls are entered for less prestigious awards, but the statistic reading is taken from overall performance (Kath Woodward, 000, p.6).

Other reasons why girls are doing better than boys at some subjects may lay in the way that girls learn. Girls and boys prefer different types of classroom activities. Girls prefer to write notes and essays and are often reluctant to participate in discussion, while boys enjoy a discussion and participating in the class. Girls are also more likely to do well on verbal tests and boys on spatial. It shows that girls and boys have different problem-solving abilities. Can it be that some of the tests are constructed in such a way that it makes it easier for particular sex to answer them?

Some of the reasons may be because of the changes in cultural structures. Women do not just stay at home and look after children and men go to work. Women are having more opportunities than ever, some of them earn the same amount or more, than men. It has been quite a blow for men to suddenly realise they are not the main bread-winner in the family. Also, the labour market is not as valuable as it was before. Such changes in culture have resulted in development in youth subculture- ‘the macho-lads' (Kath Woodward, 000, p. 67). These are normally youths who have no potential in labour market and do not identify with schooling.

There can be many reasons why recent reports are showing girls as being more successful. Family influences, culture they grow up in (e.g. gypsy girls are not allowed any education at all), social class, race. Gender does play a role but it is not necessarily the major one.

Word count (including quotes and references 841)

References

Stephanie Garrett (1) Gender, London, Routledge

Woodward K. (ed) (000) Questioning identity gender, class, nation, London, Routledge/The Open University

Please note that this sample paper on gender categories is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on gender categories, we are here to assist you. Your college paper on gender categories will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

Can Film offer a radical transformation of our understanding of race relations in Australian History?

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In the increasingly entertainment based society of today filmic portrayal of historic events has become an increasingly portrayal. This re-enactment, or adaptation of past events can serve in a very positive manner as it allows issues to be brought to mass audiences. Film as a medium allows these issues to be understood from various, alternative positions allowing discussion and understanding. However the accuracy of the understanding gained by a viewer must be questioned as it would not only vary between individuals, but may also have been a result of the film makers including inaccurate information or manipulating the truth of an event.

This argument is restricted to analysis of only three particular historically based films, ‘Jedda', ‘The chant of Jimmie Blacksmith' and ‘Rabbit Proof Fence' all of which discuss race relations in Australian History. These films all present many important facts and details surrounding several issues including assimilation, the stolen generations and the effects of colonisation. However, they too are subject to the omission of important facts and misdirection of viewer's focus on the issue at hand. This misdirection or omission is in most cases a result of the inclusion of the same plot and emotive factors that are utilised in the first instance to focus a viewer's interest on the issue. The film makers interpretation of the historical happenings on which the film is based, also acts to influence the perspective from which an audience views on-screen events.

Theses elements of historically based films act negatively as they threaten to create of a misinformed understanding of the factual events. How dramatically these negative elements effect a viewers understanding of events varies would vary depending upon his or her prior knowledge. A viewer who is well informed regarding a particular issue is less likely to experience a transformation in understanding than a viewer who is previously ignorant. This also means that any addition of emotional aspects to the factually based film will have less of an effect on the understanding of well-informed individual than it would on a individual who lacks a knowledge based understanding.

So whilst historically based films do offer an alteration in the understanding of a viewer, this alteration is subject to difference between individuals and the change may not actually be a positive one. It is also unlikely that any transformation in a viewers understanding would be radical. Viewers with a knowledge based understanding of events would be unlikely to be influenced by filmic elements such plot and character. Viewers who are less informed on the events in question would not necessarily have an established understanding that could be subject to change. Rather than a radical transformation, it is more likely that a viewer would experience a growth, alteration or deeper or more personal understanding of the events portrayed on screen.

‘Rabbit Proof Fence' portrays realistic experiences of three children of the stolen generation, allowing emotional insight, to the events, through the characters. This is particularly powerful as it does in fact create an alternate understanding of the events surrounding the stolen generations as the viewer experiences the children's circumstances from a personal perspective. This is most evident in one of the early seen when all three girls are torn from their relatives. This is perhaps one of the most pungent scenes in the film as the viewer perceives the extraordinary grief experienced by children and adults alike. The same feeling is created later on when Molly's skin is checked for the level of pigmentation. As viewers we are placed in what Tony Hughes D'aeth labels an ‘…empathetic occupation of Molly's body…' This technique is very important as it allows a new understanding of the events to develop within the viewer.

Whilst this is important in building an understanding of events, the focus placed on the emotional aspects of the film should perhaps have been partially redirected to the factual basis of the tale. Because of the increasing amount of the viewer's attention that is drawn to the girls personally, many of the facts the film is based on become less important. This is apparent throughout the film particularly during the period which the girls spend away from their parents. Due to the factual basis of the film which included 55 oral accounts, the portrayal of the treatment of the girls in the home is only partially accurate. Certain aspects are accurately represented such as; the single toiletry bucket and punishment of solitary confinement.

However the film fails to reveal the true conditions endured by many indigenous children in the same circumstances as the characters in the film. Anonymous testaments in the report ‘Bringing them Home' state that solitary confinement was not at all unusual as a form of punishment. The sanitary conditions in camps such as the one seen in the film are by the men and women who endured them as not only appalling and responsible for much sickness, but also as a condition often coupled with physical and verbal abuse. The development of a viewers understanding of events are again misdirected in the final scene where critical information regarding the continual battle that all three girls endured in their life times, making it to Jigalong to be captured and escape and recaptured. Rather than absorbing this important realisation, the film passes by them quickly, leaving a seemingly happy conclusion. This is a particular problem as it threatens to lead viewers to understand that such events did reach a peaceful conclusion eventually. This did happen in some cases in correct but as expressed in Jane Harrison's notes for Stolen, more often than not the separation resulted in the loss of much family, and if found, an inability to communicate or return to an indigenous community. This is certainly not the case as even now committees and support networks are formed to support the hundreds of indigenous families torn apart by the 186 Aborigines act.

It must be considered that any understanding gained or developed by a viewer of Rabbit Proof Fence is always going to be limited as it is built only on the observation of one interpretation of only three of an entire generation. There were many other children who never lived in camps as seen in the film but rather in single or multiple foster homes in which many of them suffered from great cruelty as outlined in Rosalie Fraser's memoir ‘Shadow Child'. It is evident that whilst in the case of this film, the emotive aspects do allow for a transforation in understanding for a viewer. However, this does not mean that limitations still apply as those who are well informed on the subject and events would not have necessarily experienced a transformation in their understanding, and any new understanding developed by an entirely naïve observer may, whilst sincere still remain misguided or inaccurate.

The film Jedda raises several key issues surrounding the concept of assimilation developed in the mid 180's. This film is crucial in alerting viewers to this policy and its repercussions. Poignant elements of ‘Jedda' are crucial as they allow the recognition of the key issue of separating an Aboriginal child from his or her community and culture and the consequences. Scenes such as that where indigenous music is entwined with Jedda's piano playing and close-up of the European collection of Indigenous tools are utilised to emphasise the extraordinary angst that separating a child from their community can result in. Jedda's persistence with talking to and playing with ‘station blacks' on the McCann's property. The behaviour of Jedda towards the other Aborigines going on ‘walkabout' allows the audience to gain perspective and understanding in regards to conflict that arises in separating a child from his or her community. The final message obtained in the death of Jedda and her captor are perhaps the final elements in allowing the audience to understand the issues that come with assimilation.

It is very likely that this is the interpretation and understanding of events an audience would gain from viewing Jedda, but there are also flaws in any understanding gained from this particular film. Predominantly these arise when examining the making of the film itself. Joe is a character introduced to suggest from a predominantly European view that assimilation can be successful and a positive tribute for an individual. Joe being played by the British actor Paul Reynell was perhaps not the best choice as his character becomes unrealistic. This acts as a device, were an audience to perceive his character as a truly successfully assimilated Aborigine, then the message of the film and the understanding an audience would reach appears to be that, as he assimilated, he survived, Jedda resisted and dies. Joe's narrative also acts to emphasise this message, his emotional appeals suggest the viewer understand the events from his perspective, understanding his sadness that Jedda's resistance to assimilation led to her death.

This is particularly concerning when considered from the point of view of an individual who is uninformed on the subject of assimilation prior to viewing the film. This viewer may not necessarily experience an alteration in understanding of events due to the on-screen portrayal of Jedda. However, if they do it is most likely to be from the perspective of Joe, which is the precise importance of filmic elements such as the addition of an emotional and concerned narrative.

A viewer well informed on the subject of assimilation in the 1800's is unlikely to be offered any change in understanding of events through a film like Jedda as it would more likely be dismissed than considered as it portrays predominantly European views regarding assimilation and whilst acknowledges Jedda's decent to an inevitable death still concludes with a message that encourages assimilation. This is not a message many agree with, as is discussed in both ‘The Guruma Story' and ‘Koori History', in which both indigenous (peter Stevens) and non-indigenous (Carol Cooper) deny this adamantly.

‘The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith' depicts the European colonisation of indigenous Australia, resulting in the assimilation of an aboriginal child into European with the result of resistance and murder. This film is particularly important as almost all events in the film, regarding Jimmie Blacksmith (Governor), are in fact fictional, as no evidence prior to his actual trial is available. Due to this, the film does without question offer an alteration in understanding of the events surrounding Jimmie Blacksmith and his trials and tribulation, as no other means was available prior to this, which would allow the understanding of such a character.

Whilst this depiction is essentially fictional several key issues relating to colonisation and it's effects on indigenous communities are raised. Emotive elements are incredibly important in this film in not necessarily offering a radical transformation of a viewers understanding, but allowing a deeper level of understanding, from both an informed and ignorant perspective, to develop.

Despite this, an issue remains in that this film, as a historic representation fails to emphasise the importance of the problems in indigenous communities that were a result of colonisation. This is apparent in many areas throughout the film. Alcoholism was a particular hazard as ‘station blacks' and those in other reciprocal relationships with Europeans would occasionally receive alcohol in return for work as documented in various articles written by Anthropologist Annette Hamilton. Whilst this is shown in the film as many dishevelled aborigines pull Jimmie along with them there are issues in the fact that the audiences attention is focussed on Jimmie's terror, not that the indigenous members of the community were in a unnecessary and unhealthy state, introduced by European colonisation.

This occurs again when Jimmie is in the jail cell and rather than the viewer focussing on the violence inflicted by the policeman on the other indigenous inmate, we are compelled to feel Jimmies lack of comforted and sadness at being in a cell. It is not until the morning when he finds the body we are made truly aware of the altercation. Even then, it remains ambiguous as to whether or not the policeman hung the prisoner or whether it was a result of suicide. In ‘The Guruma story' Peter Stevens recalls such an event in "They hang him there with a rope- police man, just having fun", also mentioning that wrongful imprisonment of aborigines was a frequent event, again, not the issue the audience is compelled to focus on as Jimmie is locked away gratuitously.

The biggest area difficulty faced when analysing whether this film creates an alteration in a viewers understanding surrounds the depiction of the violence Jimmie inflicts on the European characters in the tale. This violence, whilst provoked, does appear to be a needless and avoidable reaction to previous events that appear in the plot. Whilst an un-informed viewer may perceive Jimmie as uselessly violent and understand him to be unhappy and misunderstood, a viewer with knowledge prior to this will find no knew understanding in these events. A well informed viewer will well be aware that by this point in history the indigenous people had suffered massive injustices through slaughter and massacres as described by Janine Roberts in ‘From Massacres to mining'. The social Evolutionist H.K Rusden explained such killings in 1876 as ‘..Exterminating the inferior Australian…'It is only by such evidence that it can be understood why the character of Jimmie reacted so dramatically when yet another restriction was placed on his attempt to live happily amongst a newly Europeans dominated Australia.

Whilst this film does allow a closer and more personal attachment to be made between viewer and the character of Jimmie and his wife, a transformation in understanding is unlikely. Whilst viewers may gain a development in their understanding it is likely that much of this is the result of misdirection of focus and inaccurate use of factual events. A viewer regarding the film from a already knowledge based background is able to develop their emotive connection to the characters but it is unlikely that any transformation regarding their understanding of these events would occur, let alone one regarded radical.

Please note that this sample paper on Can Film offer a radical transformation of our understanding of race relations in Australian History? is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Can Film offer a radical transformation of our understanding of race relations in Australian History?, we are here to assist you. Your college paper on Can Film offer a radical transformation of our understanding of race relations in Australian History? will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!

Avtivity based Costing

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During the 80's, it be came apparent that the conventional techniques for recovering overheads were increasingly providing the management with cost information that was inaccurate and misleading. New techniques for overhead recovery was needed Innes,J. & Mitchell.F,(11). In order to produce a more accurate costing system, Cooper and Kaplan in 188 developed a more refined approach for assigning overhead to products and computing product costs and called this approach activity-based costing (ABC) (Colin Drury ,001).

An article published by Mike Jeans & Michael Morrow (18) summarizes that there are five main factors which led to the development of ABC. The factors are "management accounting practice has become distorted, direct labour has shrunk as a percentage of total cost for the majority of manufacturing companies, overhead costs are no longer a mere burden to be minimized, products have become more complex ,and the marketplace is more competitive". It is because of all the reasons mentioned above, that companies needed a new costing system and hence the emergence of ABC.

What is activity based costing? Offtech Computing Pty Ltd, (00) stated that Hicks (1) has defined ABC as, a concept around which it can construct an economic model of its business that will provide the accurate and relevant cost information necessary to support sound business decisions of all types". Activity-based costing is a costing model that identifies the cost pools, or activity centres, in an organization and assigns costs to products and services (cost drivers) based on the number of events or transactions involved in the process of providing a product or services.

(Narcyz Roztocki,18) in his website and Jeans and Morrow (18) both stated that cost objects consumes activities, which in return consumes resources and this consumption of resources is what drives cost.

Jeans and Morrow (18) also discussed ABC approach and summarised it by saying that ABC is able to identify any factors or activities that has a direct cause-effect relationship with the resources consumed to produce a product. This means that ABC system traces rather than allocates each expense category to the particular cost object. In ABC, cost drivers are used to assign activity cost pools to products or services and this gives a better perspective of resource allocation and all cost involved in a particular product. ABC system design compromises of two stages according to Drury (000) which are, to identify the major activities that take place in an organisation, assigning costs to cost pools / cost centres for each activity in the first stage, and determining the cost driver for each major activity and assigning the cost of activities to product according to the product's demand for activities in the second stage.

In traditional system mentioned by Drury (001) and Innes & Mitchell (11), allocating overhead to production or a series of rates is based on departments. This means the companies' total overhead is allocated to the products based on volume based measures such as labour hours and machine hours. Stuart (001) stated that companies may tend to make an assumption that there is a relation between overhead cost and volume based measure and that these volume based cost drivers assume homogeneity on all products and if the products are heterogeneous than some products might be overcosted and others might be undercosted (cost subsidization).

Innes & Mitchell (11) states that the basic formula used for traditional costing is (total product cost / production volume). They argued that most companies produce a range of different products and that each production consumes many resources and at different proportion of resources and traditional costing system do not take this into consideration in overhead allocation. In traditional costing overhead cost cannot be traced so easily and is allocated on assumptions. Drury (001) further mentions that in ABC system, overheads are assigned to each major activity and many cost pools are established whereas traditional system overhead tends to be pooled by departments. There were many reports and researches undertaken in recent years, which show how ABC has benefited companies. We shall now see two of the three cases that have been highlighted by Professors Cooper and Kaplan in Mike Jeans and Michael Morrow (18).

The first case study was on Siemens Electric Motor Works (EMW) a company that produced electric motors that adopts full absorption system. In the 180's EMW faced a problem when eastern competitors entered the market with an insurmountable cost advantage. EMW management reacted by doing an analysis on various departments and resulted in identifying a support cost. This cost was then removed and two new cost pools were assigned and were spread across five new departments. EMW's revised product cost information enabled them to decide which orders were profitable and which orders should be accepted.

The second case study was on John Deere Component Works a group manufacturing a diverse range of agriculture products that operated on absorption system. In 180's the agricultural sector sustained a great depression. In order to secure sales bids with Deere's they knew that they needed to lower prices and a detailed study was carried out. The team found out that the use of overhead resources could be explained by seven different types of support activities. These were recognised as the key overhead cost drivers and estimate percentage for each overhead account caused by the seven cost drivers and arrived to a suitable rate for each activity. This resulted in 41% of overhead shifted from labour and machine hour rates to activity bases and they were successful in bidding the next round.

It is very clear that the case study done by Cooper and Kaplan on these two organisations state that the implementation of ABC in these organisations has made product costing information more accurate which was very valuable to managers in identifying areas for process improvement and improve decision making.

Innes & Mitchell (11) reported a case study on a multi national company in USA that has a base here in the UK that previously adopted full absorption system of overhead based on labour cost. In later years the labour cost proved only 5% of total product cost, which then influenced the UK plant to look at ABC costing system as the management knew that overhead cost based on labour cost was inaccurate. After using ABC system, it identified fourteen different cost drivers and also determined each cost pool for each driver. The ABC system used produced substantial information for plant management in exhibiting some substantial differences to absorption system and gave them a detailed data on how and where production overhead incurred.

Innes & Mitchell (11a, p.) says that ABC system "significantly improves efficiency through reducing material movements, eliminating non-value added activities in consumer servicing and identifying and resolving maintenance problem areas". Drury (001) said that ABC cost system may be used to view as a resource consumption model which could be used to make decisions on adjusting the spending on the supply of resource to match resource consumption. C & K Management Limited (00) mentioned that ABC analysis could be used for forecasting cost, performance analysis, to set competitive price for products, developing budgets and target settings for a company.

Although there were many case studies undertaken about the benefits of ABC on organisations, there are however many critics about the relevance of it. An article published by Piper and Walley (10, p.7) questioned the fundamental assumption on which ABC is based. They argued that "decisions cause cost is superior to the argument that activity causes cost as a decisions precede activity" and factors such as decisions or time, volume and other factors were not taken into consideration in the Jeans & Morrow (18) case studies. These case studies also did not prove any benefits of ABC as they were many other changes taking place in those companies.

In another article by Piper and Walley (11, pg.4), they criticised ABC's approach, which treats "the relationship between activity and resource consumption as being linear, absolute and certain". They argue that ABC only uses a small sample of historical information and extrapolates it into a long term situation and the Japanese uses labour based overhead absorption system which encourages operational staff to reduce labour element or as they mention "motivates employees to reduce unnecessary activity". They further criticise that ABC actually does not provide any useful information because of current increasing application of marketing and competitive strategies, the linkage between price and cost is too complex to be captured by any means of costing system including ABC. They mentioned their concern over ABC system that it assumes that the change in the usage of resources will result later in a change in cashflow.

Bromwich and Bhimani in Piper and Walley (11, pg.44) states that "there is no real evidence that…profitability can be increased if this new technique (refers to ABC) is used in firms" and further argued that ABC is not appropriate at strategic level and at operation level management.

Cobb, Innes & Mitchell (1) conducted a survey on various companies to measures the problems of practice in implementing ABC in their organisations and reported their findings in 1. This survey was conducted on thirty companies, which were considering implementing ABC in their organisation. In their findings they concluded a series of problems with ABC system and the implementation of it.

The first problem was the amount of work involved in installing the system. Many managers complained that ABC needed too much of detailed information which takes up too much of time to gather these details especially in identifying activities, selecting cost drivers and collecting the raw data needed for the cost drivers and relating it to specific products.

Other complains reported was that there were more important or urgent priorities to look into such as the survival of the company and changing manufacturing systems.

Lack of staffs and scare resources of computer was another limiting aspect. Most companies complained that there just was not enough time for accountants to concentrate on ABC. Selection of appropriate cost drivers was also mentioned as a problem foreseen in ABC.

Other reasons reported was the lack of support from the parent companies or top managements, staffs changes in firms, identifying activities, and also the problems of reaction from staffs to ABC information's and the need to re-educate managers.

Some companies that were considering implements ABC complained that consultants fee are too expensive and some products tend to cost more and this was not favoured by staffs and in some cases activities tend to cross departmental boundaries.

Drudy (000) mentioned that ABC systems in which cost units are calculated will suggest an inappropriate degree of variability by giving different average cost per unit of output depending on the selected output level. He also mentioned that only traditional costing system traces the cost of unit-level activities to products and this cannot be done by any other costing system. C&KManagementLimited (00) mentioned that ABC does not consider opportunity cost

As a conclusion, traditional product costing system distorts product costs whenever an organization produces a diverse range of low- volume and high volume products. ABC emphasises the need to obtain a better understanding of the behaviour of overhead costs, and to ascertain what causes overhead and how they relate to products. ABC system is a model of resource consumption and not spending. ABC also attempts to measure the total organisational resource required to produce a product and it also designed to identify priorities for managerial attention. ABC are used in companies for product costing, and cost management purposes. There are many case studies done on companies that have implemented ABC as a costing system, which resulted in improved decision-making at management level and the better understanding of their product cost. However ABC tends to be a problem in implementing in small companies because of its high cost and time consuming. Further more there are no evidences that ABC in the long run would be more profitable than companies that use traditional costing system.

Bibliography

Colin Drury (000) " Management & Cost Accounting 5th edition". Thompson Learning

Colin Drury (001) " Management Accounting For Business Decisions". International Thomson nd edition.

Innes, J. & Mitchell, F. (11) ."Activity Based Costing A Review with Case Studies". Charted institute of Management Accountants, London.

Innes, J. & Mitchell, F. (11a). " Activity Based Costing a Case Study of Development and Implementation", Chartered Institute of Management Accounting. London.

Cobb, I.Innes, & Mitchell (1). " Activity Based Costing Problems in Practices", Chartered Institute of Management Accounting. London

Jeans, M. and Morrow, M. (18) " The Parcticalities Of Using Activity Based Costing".

Management Accounting (UK), November, p. 4- 44.

J.A.Piper and P.Walley (10)." Testing the ABC Logic", Management Accounting (UK), September, p. 7, 4

J.A.Piper and P.Walley (11). " ABC relevance not Found", Management Accounting (UK), March, p. 4-44, 54.

Oriol Amat Sales, John Blake, Philip Wraith (15). "Learning ABC in Spain with no Sour Grapes", Management Accounting (UK), October p. 6 7.

Cooper, R.(10) "Explicating The Logic of ABC", Management Accounting (UK), November, p.58-5, 60.

Offtech Computing Pty Ltd (00) http//www.offtech.com.au/abc/ABC_How.asp

http//faculty.quinnipiac.edu/business/accounting/Quest/ABC/definition.html

http//www.greenbusinesscentre.com/Documents/TCM%0bulletin-ABC.pdf.

http//bear.cba.ufl.edu/stuart/acg45/pdf/Fall00ActivityAnalysis.ppt.

Narcyz Roztocki (18), http//www.pitt.edu/~roztocki/abc/abctutor/index.htm

C&KManagementLimited(00),

"http//10.10.18.114/EnlightenmentorAreas/finance/CFA/ActivityBasCost.htm"

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Advantages of Globalization

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People around the world are more connected to each other than ever before. Information and money flow quicker than ever. Products produced in one part of a country are available to the rest of the world. It is much easier for people to travel, communicate and do business internationally. This whole phenomenon has been called globalization. Spurred on in the past by merchants, explorers, colonialists and internationalists, globalization has in more recent times been increasing rapidly due to improvements in communications, information and transport technology. It has also been encouraged by trade liberalization and financial market deregulation.

Globalization offers a higher standard of living for people in rich countries and is the only realistic route out of poverty for the world's poor. Pro-globalization groups e.g. World Trade Organization and the World Economic Forum believe that globalization helps to reduce poverty and increase living standards as well as encourage a better cultural understanding. Also, due to globalization, there can be international co-operation to solve environmental and social problems.

Technology has now created the possibility and even the likelihood of a global culture. The Internet, fax machines and satellites have swept away the old national cultural boundaries. Global entertainment companies now seem to shape the understandings and dreams of ordinary citizens, wherever they live. Globalization leads to better cultural understanding and tolerance. Because of improvements in travel, more and more people are traveling to different countries, thereby spreading their culture to other parts of the world.

The beauty of globalization is that it can free people from the tyranny of geography. Just because someone was born in France does not mean they can only speak French, eat French food, read French books, enjoy French entertainment etc. A Frenchman -- or anyone for that matter -- can take holidays anywhere in the world, eat sushi, drink Coke or Cape wine, watch a Hollywood blockbuster, listen to kwaito or opera, practice yoga or karate ! The fact that we are increasingly free to choose our cultural experiences enriches our lives immeasurably. Now we have the opportunity to experience the best that the world has to offer.

Globalization not only increases individual freedom, but it also revitalizes cultures through foreign influences, technologies, and markets. Thriving cultures are not the ones set in stone. They are the ones that are forever changing due to inside and outside sources. Each generation challenges the previous one; science and technology alter the way we see ourselves and the world; fashions come and go; experience and events influence our beliefs; outsiders affect us for good and bad. Cross-cultural exchange can spread greater diversity as well as greater similarity more gourmet restaurants as well as more McDonalds!

A bigger worry of anti-globalization groups is that greater individual freedom may come at the expense of national identity. But such fears are overdone. Natural cultures are much stronger than people seem to think. They can embrace some foreign influences and resist others. Foreign influences can rapidly become accepted, changing national culture, but not destroying it. Amartya Sen, the Nobel prize-winning economist, is quite right when he says that, the culturally fearful often take a very fragile view of each culture and tend to underestimate our ability to learn from elsewhere without being overwhelmed by that experience.

Self-proclaimed opponents of globalization also argue that global integration is increasing poverty and inequality -- both within and between nations. Such critics propose progressive solutions including slowing down, controlling, and even reversing the globalization process. However, a closer look at the evidence shows that the anti-globalization case is based largely on false assertions. The wealth of evidence available shows that international trade and investment, when accompanied by other development policies, are powerful engines of economic growth. This research also shows that economic growth, on average, raises incomes for both the rich and the poor. It helps to lift the poorest in society out of absolute poverty and does not automatically increase inequality. More importantly, no country has managed to lift itself out of poverty without integrating into the global economy.

The countries that have experienced high and rising levels of poverty are more often than not, the developing countries that have been marginalised from the process of globalization. Think of North Korea or many countries in Africa. Such countries have insufficient levels of international trade and investment -- not too much. Whether poor countries are poor because they do not trade enough or because poverty stricken countries are prevented from engaging in the global economy, less globalization is generally associated with less development. Ernesto Zedillo, the former president of Mexico seems to have understood the power of globalization when he said, "In every case where a poor nation has significantly overcome its poverty, this has been achieved while engaging in production for export markets and opening itself to the influx of foreign goods, investment and technology -- that is, by participating in globalization.

One of the most common claims made against globalization is that it increases world poverty. Often this claim is supported with a statistic showing the high rates of poverty in a given developing country or one highlighting the meager incomes on which many people survive. Yet, poverty is not a new concept -- it did not emerge with the onset of this new phase of globalization. More importantly, the recent significant economic growth has raised incomes and reduced the number of people living in poverty. For example, rapid economic growth in Japan after World War II helped raise per capita income from $4,67 in 160 (one third of the level in the United States) to $1,158 in 10 (higher than many Western European countries and close to that of the United States).

( Bureau of Labor Statistics, Foreign Labor Statistics. On the web at www.stats.bls.gov/flshome.html)

Basically, globalization enabled the Japanese to go from rags to riches in a generation!

Similarly, average manufacturing wages in developing countries have increased from 10 percent of the U.S. level in 160 to nearly 0 percent of the U.S. level in 1, showing that average workers in developing countries are benefitting directly from economic growth and development. ( Gary Burtless, Globaphobia Confronting Fears About Open Trade, Brookings Institution, Progressive Policy Institute, and Twentieth Century Fund, 18. )

The World Bank Research Report States the following facts "About three billion people live in ‘newly globalizing' developing countries. During the 10's this group grew at five percent per capita compared to two percent for the rich countries. The number of extremely poor (living on less than $1 per day) in the new globalizers declined by one hundred and twenty million between 1 and 18". These facts show that countries who take part in the process of globalization are benefiting and it is resulting in the reduction of poverty and an increase in the living standard of people around the world. Those who favour the process of globalization, like the former head of the International Monetary Fund, Michael Camdessusm argue that the prospects of globalization are good for "achieving more rapid poverty reduction and faster growth".

Because more and more countries are linked, there can now be greater international co-operation to solve environmental and social problems. To address global problems a very strong majority of people support increased international cooperation. Support is strong for international institutions dealing with global problems like terrorism, the environment, and human rights issues. Only a small minority prefers to see the US tackle these problems on its own. Strong majorities believe it is necessary to create more international agreements to solve a variety of problems, such as terrorism, environmental degradation, inadequate labor standards and human rights violations.

The United Nations -which has about 11 countries as members - is an organisation where countries put their heads together to address the most difficult and substantial issues and problems affecting a majority of the worlds population - "poverty eradication, fight against diseases, including HIV/AIDS, achieving universal primary education, gender equality." (President of the UN General Assembly Statements - 7 March 00). The UN is a source of international law and standards and a convener of global action. "Shipping, aviation, telecommunications, weather-forecasting, trademarks, patents, statistics, pharmaceutical - all these activities and many more fall within the purview of the United Nations agencies. The more we live in a single economic environment, the more we depend on such vital services, universal standards and rules. " (President of the UN General Assembly Statements - 7 March 00).

International treaties are eliminating ozone-destroying CFCs, have made a start at combating climate change and have limited the spread of chemical weapons, among other things. These examples of governments working together are still better than going at it alone or turning one's back on the world.

Another Pro-globalization organisation -The World Trade Organisation (WTO) - is the only international organisation dealing with the global rules of trade between nations. " Its main function is to ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably and freely as possible."

At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world's trading nations and ratified in their parliaments. These agreements are the legal ground-rules for international commerce. They are contracts, guaranteeing member countries important trade rights. They also bind governments to keep their trade policies within agreed limits to everybody's benefit. The WTO has helped to create a strong and prosperous trading system contributing to unprecedented growth. The past 50 years have seen an exceptional growth in world trade. "Merchandise exports grew on average by 6% annually. Total trade in 000 was -times the level of 150."

( http//www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/whatis_e.htm )

It's a fact that the world economy produced more output in the twentieth century alone than it produced in total over the entire preceding years of recorded human history! (Bradford DeLong,Estimating World GDP, One Million BC - Present, University of Berkeley. Available on the web at http//econ161.berkeley.edu/TCEH/18_Draft/World_GDP/Estimating_World_GDP.html )

But how does globalization affect issues closer to home? According to the Foreign Policy (The Magazine of Global Politics, Economics and Ideas), South Africa has an overall ranking of 8 on their globalization scale. There is obviously room for improvement. The expansion of global companies into South Africa will create thousands of jobs and this will help stifle the ever-increasing unemployment rate. The creation of jobs therefore increases the economic power and living standard of citizens as more people earn a salary and can support their families. Indeed, higher levels of trade and investment tend to increase economic growth and bring other positive effects (such as access to new, better technologies).

There are heated debates about globalization and its positive and negative effects. While globalization is thought of by many as having the potential to make societies richer through trade and to bring knowledge and information to people around the world, there are many others who perceive globalization as contributing to the exploitation of the poor by the rich, and as a threat to traditional cultures as the process of modernization changes societies. "World- changing" processes are not going to be perfect and globalization is no different. But it is not logical to ignore or downplay the positive effects of globalization in order to attack its negative effects. Globalization is an unstoppable process but it is one that we have control over. This means that we should stop wasting our time and resources attacking globalization and should give our all to combat the negative effects of globalization and to enhance its advantages.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Foreign Labor Statistics. On the web at www.stats.bls.gov/flshome.html

. Gary Burtless et al., Globaphobia Confronting Fears About Open Trade, Brookings Institution, Progressive Policy Institute, and Twentieth Century Fund, 18.

. Keith Somerville; Africa Globalization or Marginalisation; BBC December 4, 00

4.The New Wave of Globalization and its Economic Effects (Reader pp 18-7) In World Bank Policy Research Report. Globalization, Growth and Poverty Building and Inclusive World Economy. A co-publication for the World Bank and Oxford University Press; 00

5. http//www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/whatis_e.htm

6. http//www.un.org/ga/president/57/pages/speeches/statement0006-Globalization.htm

7. http//www.foreignpolicy.com/wwwboard/g-index.php

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Foreign Labor Statistics. On the web at www.stats.bls.gov/flshome.html

. Gary Burtless et al., Globaphobia Confronting Fears About Open Trade, Brookings Institution, Progressive Policy Institute, and Twentieth Century Fund, 18.

. Keith Somerville; Africa Globalization or Marginalisation; BBC December 4, 00

4.The New Wave of Globalization and its Economic Effects (Reader pp 18-7) In World Bank Policy Research Report. Globalization, Growth and Poverty Building and Inclusive World Economy. A co-publication for the World Bank and Oxford University Press; 00

5. http//www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/whatis_e.htm

6. http//www.un.org/ga/president/57/pages/speeches/statement0006-Globalization.htm

7. http//www.foreignpolicy.com/wwwboard/g-index.php

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Petrach - Father of the Reniassance

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Before the civic spirit and individuality evident and necessary to the Renaissance came to fruition, there had to have been something to trigger a change in the mentality of the medieval civilization. The medieval manorialism fostered illiteracy and ignorance and a very narrow view of the outside world, people did not question their place, the church, or the need to prepare for the after life. The "awakening" of the Renaissance came after the dawn of a new Roman Empire way of thinking.. Humanism is the intellectual, literary and scientific movement of the 14th to the 16th centuries without which the Renaissance would never have evolved. Humanism is a rediscovery and reevaluation (analysis) of classical civilization and the application of the aspects of this civilization to intellectual and social culture in the current time. It is a blend of concern for the history and actions of human beings, mainly the ancient Greeks and Romans, such as, Cicero, Ceaser, and Augustine, with the belief that man was at the center of the universe. Contrary to Christian teachings, humanist believe that man is subject and creator of his own destiny, governed by ideals of beauty, grace, and harmony and the glorification of individual freedom. These ideas provide the vehicle, in which the transition from medieval thinking of vassalage (servitude) and the afterlife to a return to the principles of the Pax Romana occurred. Christian humanism came to mean individualism and the value of life in the present.

Italy, and specifically Florence, is said to have been the birthplace of humanistic thinking and the Renaissance for a variety of reasons. Geography, more than anything, gave Italy the advantage over the rest of Europe. During the time when the rest of Europe was in the throes of medieval Feudalism and Manorialism, all commerce had stopped, but merchants and artists in northern Italy had maintained trade and commerce activities with both the Byzantine East and the European West. By the 11th century Italy dominated commerce in the Mediterranean and Western Europe, this enabled them to amass great wealth and a certain sense of self-confidence. The Italians, through organization and cleverness exploited their advantages, and by the high Middle Ages strong, wealthy and independent city-states, unlike the manors of Europe, had evolved. In addition, Italy was consistently exposed to not only the large-scale flow of goods, but also to new ideas and knowledge. It is important to note that although Italy had become independent, the Church still remained powerful and religion continued to be a governing factor. But, pre humanists began to question the teachings of the church and the corruption evident in the Papacy. Many pre Renaissance and Renaissance individuals felt torn between the pious teachings of the church and the earthly pleasures which wealth and independence brought. Until this point, education was scarce and only monastic schools existed, mainly for educating the clergy. The wealthy Italians, dissatisfied with the monastic schools, established independent municipal universities with a secular approach to learning, based on the classics. This was one of the decisive steps away from the church and towards a humanistic approach to life.

Humanism is thought to be the most significant and defining intellectual and literary movement of the Renaissance. The leader of the Humanistic movement was Francis Petrarch (the anglicized name of Francesco Petrarca, 104-174). He is often referred to as "the Father of the Renaissance." Petrarch characterized the earliest glimmerings of humanism in a mindset dominated by the Christian church. He is seen as the writer who most clearly had one foot in the Middle Ages and the other in the Renaissance. Through persistence and industry he brought Western Europe into contact with antiquity and the values of the Roman Empire.

Petrarch was born in Arezzo in 104 the son of a Florentine notary. The family was forced to leave Florence for Avignon when the Guelph party took control of Florence and Petrarchs father fell into political disfavor. Because he was forcedto leave his proud homeland, Petrarch always considered himself to be a man without a country. Although he assimilated the French culture and language, he would never forget his roots. This, later in life, would dominate his writing in which his sonnets, written in vernacular Italian, would help define Italian as an accepted language. At his fathers insistence, he studied law at the University of Bologna, but left after his fathers death to pursue a life of scholarship.

Petrarch was the first to undertake the collection of ancient texts and traveled all over Italy, Germany, and France to search through monastic and cathedral libraries. Petrarch Urged others to do the same and wealthy Italians all over Italy began their own libraries. By the 15th century famous libraries, that are still in existence today, had been established. His own extensive library of rare items was highly valued, and Venice granted him a home on the condition that he would leave his library to the city. One of Petrarch's legacies was his belief that the recovery and study of the works of antiquity could restore virtue, culture, and social order. He believed that the Italy of his day was the heir and successor of ancient Rome and that the various states of Italy should be united to resume the mission of ancient Rome.

During Petrarchs lifetime, he was famed primarily as a poet and scholar. His most influential work was Rime Sparse, a book of 66 sonnets most of them dedicated to his frustrated desire for a woman named Laura. Although he did not invent the sonnet, it can be found in 1th century Courtly Love poetry, the quality of his work and the use of the vernacular made it very popular and served as a reintroduction of the sonnet form to the literary world. This literary form is to this day is known as "Petrarchan sonnet." In 141 he was crowned Poet Laureate in Rome. This illustrious honor was a shining moment for Petrarch, as this was a public expression of respect and enthusiasm for his literary achievements.

Petrarch expected to achieve great fame from his epic biographical poem Africa, which was based on the life of Scipio Africanus who, to Petrarch, embodies the valiant and pious virtues of the ancient Romans. But, although he worked on this throughout his lifetime, it was never even published. His imitation of Virgil's Aeneid shows the degree to which he relied on Classical literature as a source and guide. Amazingly, he included his own commentaries and reflections on the events of the biography. This type of critical analysis shows that Petrarch had crossed a bridge into Renaissance thinking. Literary historian Eugenio Donadoni states that Petrarch was a precursor of the humanists of the fifteenth century for whom the literature of antiquity was a cult (Donadoni, 7). Morris Bishop in Petrarch and His World calls Petrarch one of the rare men of his time, perhaps the only one, who had learned to read critically (Bishop, 1). Petrarch had unwittingly become the creator of historical analysis and literary criticism.

In addition to his songs and sonnets, Petrarchs gift to posterity was an equally huge collection of letters. It has been said that Petrarch had a wider circle of friends than any man up to that time, and it is likely that he had a wider circle of correspondents; his letters, of which he always retained copies, number at least 50, and it is known that others have been lost or destroyed. Most of these were actually posted; a few, such as his rhetorical letters to Cicero, Plato, and Seneca, were never intended to be, but were simply written as a statement of Petrarchs philosophy in the context of the addressees. Many of his letters are not philosophical at all, but simply familial and fraternal, an old friend reaching out to keep in touch with others. But in other cases, Petrarchs greatest philosophical statements, and his most profound insights, are contained in his letters.

Based on his studies of Cicero, Petrarch believed that there had to be more to virtue than religion. Petrarch philosophical works are an effort to resolve this conflict between earthly and spiritual needs. In His book, De Remediis Utriusque Fortunae (On the Remedies for Good and Bad Fortune), Petrarch theorizes that there is a problem inherent in every happy situation and a positive aspect to every bad one. His dialogues, De Contemptu Mundi (On the Scorn of the World, sometimes also called the Secretum), chronicle an imaginary dialogue between Petrarch and St. Augustine, Petrarchs favorite ecclesiastic. In it, Augustine accuses Petrarch of being worldly because of his pride, avarice, and his love for women (or rather a woman -- the ubiquitous Laura). Petrarch defends himself by saying that all these traits have actually raised him closer to God. That Petrarch could perceive that humanistic and individualistic qualities actually brought him closer to God is not a viewpoint popular to his time and is one more indication of his closing the gap between medieval and Renaissance thinking.

In his final years, he began working on an autobiographical letter, called the Letter to Posterity. This letter was never finished, in it the details of his life stop when Petrarch is not yet fifty, even though he was seventy when he died. The important thing about the Letter to Posterity, however, is the fact that he wrote it to assure his personal immortality. Historian Henry Hollway-Calthrop points out that "self-effacement was the rule of medieval thought, because the individual was nothing before the awful face

of God." (Hollway-Calthrop, 1) The ancients knew nothing of God or self-effacement and therefore said otherwise, and Petrarch apparently agreed with them. The Letter to Posterity was clearly written to immortalize him. In the words of Hollway-Calthrop, It was not enough for him that his influence should work as a silent leaven in the minds of men; he wanted to be remembered as a man, as a personality (Hollway-Calthrop, ). And Petrarch himself says in this letter, You may perhaps have heard some report of me, and you may like to know what sort of man I was, and what was the outcome of my works. (Robison, 5) He was anticipating his immortality as a writer, a definitively Renaissance era idea.

Petrarchs clearest venture into the Renaissance is contained in his reflections On The Ascent of Mt. Ventoux. Petrarch, in a letter describing the climb, tells how Gherardo, his younger brother, gamely chose the straightest path up the crags, disregarding danger, while Petrarch himself attempted to stay to the well-trodden paths. The problem was, all the well-trodden paths curved gently along the horizontal ridges of the slope and then led back down. Obviously this was because no one had ever preceded the brothers up the face of the mountain, so there were no paths. Petrarch saw this experience as a profound metaphor for the way he had been leading his life, in that the easy paths that do not lead the soul to heaven. When they finally reached the summit, he gazed out in joy over the vista he had at last attained, and opened St. Augustine's Confessions. The very first words he saw were, And men go about to wonder at the heights of the mountains, and the mighty waves of the sea, and the wide sweep of rivers, and the circuit of the ocean, and the revolution of the stars, but for themselves consider not." (Lawall, 167) Petrarch was angry with himself for still admiring earthly things who might long ago have learned from even the pagan philosophers that nothing is wonderful but the soul, which, when great itself, finds nothing great outside itself. (Lawall, 167) As he descends, he turns and looks back at the mountain peak, and thinks, How earnestly should we strive, not to stand on mountain-tops, but to trample beneath us those appetites which spring from earthly impulses." (Lawall, 167) This passage demonstrates Petrarchs very soul was divided between the spiritual and the earthly, Christianity and classical antiquity. He was not a man of the Renaissance, but he came closer than any other man of his time. At the end of his life, bemoaning the fact that in his finite lifetime he had been unable to preserve all the knowledge of the past for all the generations of the future, Petrarch said, I am as if on the frontiers of two peoples, looking forward and backward. And indeed he was.

Bishop, Morris. Petrarch and His World. Bloomington Indiana University Press, 16.

Donadoni, Eugenio. A History of Italian Literature, Volume 1. New York New York University Press, 16.

Hollway-Calthrop, Henry. Petrarch His Life and Times. New York Putnam's, 107.

Lawall, Sarah, ed. The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces, Seventh Edition, Volume 1. New York W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 18.

Musa, Mark, ed. Selections from the Canzoniere & Other Works by Francesco Petrarch.

New York Oxford University Press, 1.

Robinson, James Harvey, ed. Petrarch The First Modern Scholar and Man of Letters

New York G.P. Putnam, 188.

Symonds, John Addison. "Beginning and Progress of the Renaissance" History

of the World, 01-01- (obtained online).

Wilkins, Ernest Hatch. A History of Italian Literature. Cambridge Harvard University

Press, 174.

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English Essay: Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead

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English Essay Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead

How has the composer of the contemporary text used the earlier text to say something new?

The text Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead by Tom Stoppard can be seen as being a derivative text of Hamlet, by William Shakespeare. The two text share similar themes and tone, and the plot of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead revolves around two minor characters from Hamlet. There is however a sense of transformation involved; Stoppard has, in a sense, expanded and further explored the issues involved in Hamlet. Hamlet can be seen as being the inspiration behind Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead.

The similarities in theme and tone spring mostly from Stoppard's use of the discussion of death, his portrayal of appearance versus reality and his interpretation of fate and destiny. These themes are discussed in much the same way as in Hamlet, with Stoppard adding originality to the text, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead. The different themes are explored and examined through the plots of both texts, and the different characters are used to ask questions pertaining to the meaning of human existence and concerning life after death.

The two plays are able to be examined in concurrence for the simple reason that their themes, tone and techniques are so similar. By using Hamlet as a starting point for Rosencrantz and njunction with one another.

Death is indeed a theme that is prevalent throughout both texts. In Hamlet death is discussed with reference to murder, suicide and accidental death. Old Hamlet, Polonius, Gertrude, Claudius, young Hamlet, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern all meet their deaths at the instigation of another character with Ophelia being the only character to die accidentally or unintentionally. Death is discussed in the form of suicide by Hamlet, "O that this too, too solid flesh would melt" (Act 1, Scene ), after his father's murder.

All the deaths in Hamlet can be seen as being exaggerated and theatrical, with graphic descriptions to go with them, while in Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead, death is shown as the simple failure to reappear. When Rosencrantz and Guildenstern die, the audience knows only by their failure to reappear on the stage at the end of the play.

Death is a topic that is often talked about in Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead. The two characters of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern discuss what exactly death is. This is a major feature of the play and can be seen as an extension on Hamlet. The issue of what comes after death is also a question that is often raised throughout the play. A possible explanation is offered by Guildenstern when he says "Death is …not. Death isn't. You take my meaning. Death is the ultimate negative. Not being."(pg ) This is a somewhat nihilistic belief and is an example of the philosophical angle that is evident throughout the play.

Death is also discussed in Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead through the character of the Player. This character is used by Stoppard as a theatrical device, much like the Chorus of classical plays. This character serves the dual purpose of examining the theme of death in connection to the theme of appearance versus reality. The character or rather the occupation of the player is discussed by Rosencrantz and Guildenstern in relation to death. Stoppard uses the character of the Player to suggest that death is not something that can be pretended or faked. Stoppard does this through the statements of criticism made by Guildenstern, for the way the Player and his fellow actors try to make death as theatrical and dramatic as possible. This can be seen through Guildenstern's thought that "Dying is not romantic, and death is not a game that will soon be over…Death is not anything…death is not…It's the absence of presence, nothing more…"(pg 116).

This idea is expressed quite often in the play and can be seen as an extension on Hamlet, where the idea of the acting death being impossible is not expressed. This idea is unique to Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead due to the fact that the character of the Player in Hamlet plays such a minor role while in Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead he is given a role that can be seen as being one of the three largest in the whole play. Stoppard uses the discussion about the player and his profession to extend on the Player's character. Instead of making the character of the Player a focus of Hamlet the device of the play is used by Hamlet to enact a game of ‘cat and mouse' with Claudius. In Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead, the character of the Player is extended and expanded on so that, like Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, he is given a major role compared to the minor one he had in Hamlet.

Another theme that can be seen as being ubiquitous in both plays is that of appearance versus reality. All themes in the plays can be seen as being linked in some way to each other and so the themes of death and fate and destiny are often found to be tied to that of appearance versus reality.

The two plays have different ways in which the idea of appearance versus that of reality is expressed or explained. There are different devices that are used throughout Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead to examine this idea and through which this theme is explained.

In Hamlet the concept of Hamlet's "antic disposition" is used to express the idea of something being hidden. Hamlet employs the feigned madness for the simple reason that he believes that this will enable the other characters to express themselves more freely. In other words he plays at something or hides a reality to find another reality that is hidden. He pretends to be mad to learn the truth about his father's death and Claudius' involvement in it.

In Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead however the idea of appearance versus reality is present through the perception of Hamlet and his interactions with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Hamlet mistrusts them and comes to see them as deceitful, at one stage calling Rosencrantz "a sponge" and implying that he was sent to Ellsinore by the King to ‘spy' on Hamlet and to find out his secret; what is at the heart of his madness. Stoppard has used his own interpretation to show Rosencrantz as Guildenstern as two men who have no control over their lives and who are constantly being maneuvered by people in positions of authority i.e. Claudius. In other words Hamlet sees two former friends who are following the orders of someone who he considers his enemy, when in actuality they are two characters who have no control and are stumbling through their lives and being maneuvered by someone else.

It is only at the very end of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern themselves realize that they have been controlled by someone else "We've traveled too far, and our momentum has taken over; we move idly towards eternity without possibility of reprieve or hope of explanation".

This explanation for Rosencrantz's and Guildenstern's behavior and actions is unique to Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead, and can be seen as a way that Stoppard has created something original from the previous text of Hamlet.

In this way the theme of appearance versus reality can be seen as being extended on by Stoppard in Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead and Stoppard's text can be seen as being original in its approach to this theme.

The third key theme that is explored in these texts is that of fate and destiny. This theme is discussed frequently in both texts and is linked to the other two major themes of death and appearance versus reality.

In Hamlet this is discussed through the idea that Hamlet's actions have taken him to a stage where the only possible resolution that can be found is that of his death. In other words his choices at the different stages of confrontation of the play, Polonius' death for example, have led him to a point where the only way that the situation can be resolved is if the reactant; Hamlet is taken out of the picture. It is his fate to die trying to revenge his father. Towards the end of the play it is possible to see that Hamlet too knows that his actions will have consequences, and tells Horatio that he is prepared to deal with them

"If it be now, 'tis not to come; if it be not to come, it will be now; if it will be not now, yet it will come the readiness is all." Here it is possible to see that Hamlet has come to accept that he will die and that there is nothing that will stop this occurring. He is ready to die and when Horatio begs him to stop the duel, Hamlet explains that death will come whether it is now or later. Hamlet can be seen as having had control over his actions and therefore his death is his fate. This can be seen as being a contrast to Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead, due to the fact that Hamlet has some semblance of control, while Rosencrantz are pawns; being controlled by someone else.

In Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead it is not many choices at different stages that lead to the characters' fate; rather it is one choice, at one stage that gives direction to the rest of the text. It is this choice that leads to their eventual death. It should be noted that even this choice is made at the instigation of someone else, in this case Claudius. His request that they come to Ellsinore is the "…moment at the beginning where we (they) could have said no…". This is noted by Guildenstern on page 117. He also notes that "…somehow we missed it", it is at this point that the audience becomes aware that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are aware of their fate as the viewer. It is their fate to die because that is their end in ­Hamlet, from the outset the audience knows that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern have to die because this text is a derivative text, and as such has to follow the rules placed out for it by the original text. Along with this is the idea that their fate is decided for them by someone else and as such they have no control over whether they live or die. It is the way that Stoppard is able to extend on the characters presented by Shakespeare and give them original and unique personalities that are more complex than those in Hamlet.

These two texts can be seen as being linked through the themes and tone that they share as well as through the characters and the way they interact with their environment. Rosencrantz and Guildentsern's interactions with Hamlet and the other major characters seem superficial when they are looked at only through the text of Hamlet. It is only when this text is regarded in conjunction with the text of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead that the audience is able to appreciate the two title characters and their unique personalities properly.

In this way it can be seen that through his manipulation of theme and tone and his extension of the characters of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, Stoppard has been able to create something new and original and form it into a full text. He is able to create a new text using the same themes that are present in Hamlet, but extending them to sculpt a unique text full of detail and the intricacies of developed characters. Stoppard has used the original text of Stoppard has used the original text of Hamlet, to create something new and although similar in theme and tone, quite different to that of the earlier text by William Shakespeare.

Please note that this sample paper on English Essay: Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on English Essay: Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on English Essay: Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality. Order your authentic assignment and you will be amazed at how easy it is to complete a quality custom paper within the shortest time possible!