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1. INTRODUCTION

Warren Bennis in 185 in partnership with Burt Nanus wrote a book called ¡§Leaders¡¨. Six statements evolved about leadership and have since been subject to much debate. These statements are mythical and are

„X Leadership is a rare skill

„X Leaders are born, not made

„X Leaders are charismatic

„X Leadership exists only at the top of the organisation

„X The Leader Controls, Directs, Prods and Manipulates

„X The leader¡¦s sole job is to increase share-holder value

The first five statements shall be analysed with the scope to assess the truthfulness and usefulness of them.

. REPORT

.1. Leadership Is a Rare Skill

.1.1. Concepts and Analysis

Leadership is not just a simple noun which one can learn its definition from a dictionary. There are about 50 definitions of the term ¡§leadership¡¨. This is due to the fact that it is difficult concept to explain but can easily be recognised. Therefore if it is difficult to explain then logically it must be harder to learn, and harder to practice as a skill. However here is one definition that delineates the vital elements of the leadership process

¡§Leadership is an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes that reflect their shared purposes.¡¨ (Daft, 1 5)

Daft (00) suggests that there are few people who provide leadership in organisations, as well as fewer who have the integrated skills required to meet management and leadership challenges (Daft, 00). A statement by Kotter (10) that organisations are,

¡§over-managed and under-led.¡¨ (Kotter J, 10)

is supported by the Management-Leadership mix (Appendix 1) where there exists too many people with a combination of strong management skills and weak leadership skills The key challenge however is said to, obtain the correct combination of leadership and management, and use them both to balance each other (www.complete-leadership.com, accessed 10/10/0). Also, with this in mind, in a broad perspective the term management is now automatically seen to encompass leadership. Hence the concepts of management and leadership are on the brim of merging. Overall although there may be few with the correct balance and/or integration of the two skills, it does not fully address whether leadership skills alone is scarce.

The leadership process is now recognised as a ¡§soft¡¨ skill to clarify the distinction from the ¡§hard¡¨ management concept (www.complete-leadership.com, accessed 10/10/0). The crux of which is ¡§human¡¨ centred, in that it is a people activity and occurs among people. Leadership is also said to come alive from and within the hearts of leaders, and is required in order to engage the hearts and minds of others (Daft, 001). Thus leadership has a psychological stem, which tends to be innate and hard to master for those learning to be leaders. Therefore although many may possess the skill, it is not necessarily recognised by the individual themselves, by those around them or used in order to be recognised. This may explain why leadership is seen to be used by a minority (www.managementfirst.com, accessed 10/10/0).

Looking at leadership in a broader context and the environment in which it operates can lead to an explanation. That environmental chaos may be growing sufficiently so that the skill of leaders becomes insufficient, contributing to the deficiency of leadership as a skill (Daft 00,www.complete-leadership.com, accessed 10/10/0)

It is of utmost importance to distinguish between successful and great leaders to leadership, as each has a different level of occurrence. According to Dr Daniel Goleman the gap between average and outstanding leaders¡¦ performances is attributed to Emotional Intelligence (E.I.), the ability to connect with people effectively (Swain & Tyrell, 00086-4). It is a way to identify superior leaders, which as measurable should give an indication as to how rare superior leadership is. Hence the statement of leadership as a rare skill is more applicable in this context. Also Depree (18) states leadership is an art, (www.infotrain.magill.unisa.edu.au, accessed 0/10/0). This adds further difficulty in underlining the mechanisms of leadership, thus difficulty in creating an effective leadership program or training to make leaders. Therefore fits the statement as to why great leadership is rare.

However it has been stated that leadership has zero association to art. But an art metaphor is used indicate intuitive, non-cognitive, often subconscious, non-rational, non-measurable process (www.complete-leadership.com, accessed 10/10/0). These are associated with the affective domain of Bloom & Krathwohl¡¦s (156), and Bloom & Masia (164) hierarchical taxonomy (Appendix ), which is concerned with feelings and attitudes resultant of a learning process (www.rgu.ac.uk, accessed 10/10/0). Hence leadership in part is classified in a level of intellectual learning, which can not be easily recognised and is tacit.

.1.. Examples and Illustrations

Everyone has leadership potential just as they have the potential to run faster or potential to be computer literate, one just needs to grasp the numerous opportunities that exist and are available (Bennis & Nanus, 1706, www.moyak.com, accessed 10/10/0). Many people have more than one role, although they may not have a formal leadership role at work, it is possible to practice leadership in a social context e.g. team captain of a netball team.

.1.. Truthfulness

Ultimately one can see leadership in practice everyday, to different effectiveness¡¦s and in different situations. Therefore this statement is untrue. It is more applicable that great leadership is rare.

.1.4. Usefulness

It is useful in realising that average leadership is not rare, thus provides a base on which to develop people to learn and practice great leadership.

.. Leaders Are Born, Not Made

..1. Concepts and Analysis

This statement refers to an early universalistic theory on leadership, by which people were born with innate characteristics that make them leaders. Hence it is believed that leaders are naturally born and preordained, and not made or nurtured. Contradictory to this Bennis & Nanus (17) state,

¡§¡K..whatever natural endowments we bring to the role of leadership, they can be enhanced; nurture is far more important than nature in determining who becomes a successful leader.¡¨ (Bennis & Nanus, 1707)

Kakabadse (000) complements by saying,

¡§Leadership requires the development of key aspects of character¡K.¡¨ (Kakabadse & Shead, 00114). As development of character is attributable to nurture, thus discrediting this statement. Another view is that of Mr Paul Glover (00) at The McLaren Partnership, who stated that in his experience leadership skills can be learnt but one is born with leadership personality e.g. charisma (Verbal Communication, 1/04/0). Although this is further analysed by Arnold et al (18) who add,

¡§Personality characteristics in themselves do not make leaders effective. What matters is how those characteristics are expressed in their behaviour.¡¨ (Arnold et al, 18 6)

The theory is named the Great Man theory and was derived from examining those leaders who had achieved high levels of greatness; they were elevated as heroes (Crainer, 18 ). The approach sought to classify the charateristics which made leaders and distinguish them from their non leader counterparts. Research began by identifying the traits of successful leaders and measuring them in relation to how effective leadership. Essential traits consistent with effective leadership were found by Stodgill (148), after examining over 100 studies with a stem from the trait approach, and were integrity, interpersonal skills, drive and confidence. However general research found only a weak relationship between traits and leader success. Stodgill (148) did however at the same time spark the future of the contingency approach, by indicating that the importance of the trait was relative to the organisational situation (Daft, 00 4-44).

In addition to Stodgill¡¦s (174) conclusion that a number of personal traits contributed to effective leadership, Kirpatrick & Locke (11) found also found supporting evidence which overlapped. The management consulting giant Andersen, with assistance, performed interviews with a vast number of emerging leaders and ranked various characteristics important in successful leadership. However Bennis & Nanus (17) argue that,

¡§The truth is that major capacities and competencies of leadership can be learned, and we are all educable, at least if the basic capacity to learn is there¡K.¡¨ (Bennis & Nanus, 1707)

This is central to Adair¡¦s thought,

¡§¡Kleadership is a skill which can be learned like any other.¡¨ (Crainer, 18 )

However if we are privileged to education then people can become successful leaders through experience,

¡§¡Kfor successful leaders, a variety of experiences throughout their professional lives is key to developing the requisite leadership skills.¡¨ (www.managementfirst.com, accessed 10/10/0)

Another unique insight in learning leadership places responsibility unto others, made by Doyle (001),

¡§Leaders develop leaders.¡¨

This interprets as,

¡§The essence of leadership is providing a learning environment that encourages you employees to grow into future leadership roles of their own.¡¨ (Association Management, 00116-17)

Crainer (180) supports Doyle (001) by saying,

¡§Leaders must, therefore, invest in developing the leaders of tomorrow¡K.¡¨

In contrast Bennis (00) places the responsibility of learning leadership on to oneself,

¡§We are each capable of creating ourselves as effective leaders.¡¨ (www.soul-power.com, accessed 10/10/0)

Regardless though of how much one is taught leadership skills or had a number of experiences it must be remembered that people must use their leadership skills and continuously try to perfect them, or as the saying goes, ¡§if you don¡¦t use it, you lose it!¡¨

(www.cbpa.louisville.edu, accessed 10/10/0)

To date traits have now been associated with Emotional Intelligence (EI) (Daft, 00 4-44). Dr Daniel Goleman attributes superior leadership to a combination of technical and cognitive abilities EI and IQ respectively. And that 0 percent of the gap between average leaders and outstanding leaders is linked to EI. Hence if it is linked to EI, it EI can be nurtured and thus leadership nurtured (Swain & Tyrell, 00086-4).

Overall it has been deduced that although there are some personal traits that are essential for effective leadership. It is noted these are dependant and required in addition to other factors, namely the organisations situation which is now at the forefront (Daft, 0045).

... Examples and Illustrations

Longstanding great leaders are thought to be people like Martin Luther King, William Shakespeare, Winston Churchill and Julies Caesar.

..4. Truthfulness

Leaders are not born, except if they are by birthright born into the role. Thus it is not true. What is true and important is that leaders can be made through development, experience and education.

..5. Usefulness

It is now understood that the Great Man theory that leaders are born and not made rarely applies, and thus useful to a minute extent (Crainer, 18 8)

.. Leaders Are Charismatic

..1. Concepts and Analysis

Stemming from the noun charisma, being charismatic by definition is having ¡§the power to inspire devotion and enthusiasm.¡¨ (Oxford Dictionary iiiiiiiiii1847).

To date the definition now reads as

¡§A rare personal quality attributed to leaders who arouse fervent popular devotion and enthusiasm¡¨ (http//www.dictionary.com/search?q=charisma, accessed 10/10/0)

The term has become synonymous with leadership in less than 0 years, when in fact it is a personality factor which has the power to inspire people. Thus the distinction is dying away and with it the fact that leaders do have personalities other than being charismatic.

These leaders motivate people by raising subordinates consciousness. Very often, they have a vision of the future and have a great emotional impact on subordinates (Arnold et al, 18). A typical charismatic leader earns followers¡¦ trust by being open to incur personal risk, creates an air of change and articulates an idealised vision of a future. The differentiating factor to other leadership styles is that their influence stems from personal power as opposed to position power (Daft, 00 145). Therefore Slater (001) explains why the leader¡¦s own personality is the most important tool for a leader (Bennis et al, 001111).

Bennis & Nanus (17) guess that charisma is resultant of effective leadership (Bennis & Nanus 17 08) and those leaders are not necessarily charismatic prior to performing a leadership role. Which seems logical as not all people who are charismatic, are leaders or in leadership positions.

Potential leaders or leaders hoping to become great should not be dismayed as despite the fact that charisma can not be learnt, there are particular aspects which can be and used (Daft, 00144). Generally those who love what they do exhibit elements of charisma (Daft 0005). However incomplete charisma, from learning, is at greater risk of fading or being practised inconsistently. This can result in a loss of faith in the leader and dishearten followers.

According to Conger & Kanungo (187,1) it is suggested that charisma is attributed by followers to a leader. This based on three of the leader¡¦s behavioural and cognitive patterns. Hence leaders need to convince their potential followers in order to gain their awe, enthusiasm and direction (Klimoski & Zaccaro, 00115-16).

House (177) states that leadership of a charismatic nature results in organisational change through articulating a vision for its future and creating strong emotional relationships with followers. This allows implicit trust to grow in organisational members and loyalty in acceptance of change. Motivation and efficacy also increases in an attempt to reach goals according to Eden (184, 10) (Klimoski & Zaccaro, 0011-14).However the slight danger is in the leader¡¦s response and dealing of dire circumstances, which can affect their ability to maintain their charisma to the level in which followers have become accustomed to. As should it adversely affect the leader, it may eventually bear a detrimental effect to organisational performance as the power lies within the charisma.

However the implications of using charisma can have negative effects on followers and the surrounding environment if used for self-serving purposes. It can lead to manipulation, exploitation and be potentially dangerous (Daft, 00146).

... Examples and Illustrations

An exemplary charismatic leader would be the Disney C.E.O. Michael Eisner. He shapes the corporate value system that induces creativity amongst others along with his vision, holds wild creative brainstorming sessions to proliferate a creative energy flow prefers to be known as head cheerleader (Daft, 17 514).

Adolf Hitler is an example of a leader who used charisma for self-serving purposes (Daft, 00146).

... Truthfulness

Leaders are only charismatic if they have a charismatic personality, and thus the statement not wholly true.

..4. Usefulness

If a leader is charismatic it can be in their favour if deployed articulately. However charisma alone does not guarantee success at leadership alone.

.4. Leadership Only Exists At the Top of the Organisation

.4.1. Concepts and Analysis

Traditionally it is thought that leadership is practised and exists at the upper-levels of an organisational hierarchy. However this is not the case as Zaccaro and Klimoski (001 4) state,

¡§¡Kexecutive leadership differs from lower-level leadership.¡¨

Hence evidently leadership exists throughout the organisations hierarchy, but differs qualitatively throughout the lower, middle and top of the organisational layers, according to Katz and Kahn (178) and stratified systems theory (Jacobs & Jacques, 187, 11). (Zaccaro & Klimoski, 001 1,440-441) Thus leadership in the lower levels are apparently focus on internal matters and upper-levels have an external focus, for example task accomplishment and visionary activities respectively.

A different perspective is that of Ellet (00) who explains, using CEO of Soutwest Airlines Herb Kelleher, leadership starts at the top of an organisation but with tens of thousands of employees and operations good leadership needs to be exercised every day by everyone. (Ellet, 00 10, 1) Therefore he partially agrees and disagrees with the statement.

A survey of 15 global companies found 80-0 percent of leadership is accountable to Emotional Intelligence (EI) and thus Dr Daniel Goleman reasoned that the most important factor is EI, not IQ, for entry-level to executive positions. Hence leadership (and EI) is important at all levels of a hierarchy. (Swain & Tyrell, 00086-4) An idea of Myers that organisations would function optimally if each employee was treated as a manager, became extrapolated to, leadership development should take place at every level of an organisation. It became so as management is intertwined with leadership (Appendix ). (Smallwood et al, 000-7) This supports Dr Goleman¡¦s conclusion.

As it has been established that leadership does occur at levels other than the top of the organisational hierarchy, logic can help extends this further. As if leadership occurring at all levels of the hierarchy is proportional to the size of the organisation then it can be deduced that the larger an organisation is, the larger the number of leadership roles exist. Thus on a population perspective,

¡§¡Kleadership potential ¡K.is broadly rather than narrowly distributed in the population.¡¨ (Crainer, 18 )

Opportunities for leadership exist throughout the organisation and employees are encouraged through ¡§intrapreneurship¡¨ (Bennis & Nanus, 17 08).

Mullins (1647) takes the stance that leadership has formal position and informal presence by stating,

¡§Leadership does not necessarily take place within the hierarchical structure of the organisation.¡¨

Hence although arguably formal leadership takes place at the top of an organisation, informal leadership must also be recognised. It can occur throughout the organisation at all levels and outside the organisation in a social context and involuntarily.

.4.. Examples and Illustrations

At Book Club Associates in the Supply Chain department, Teresa Adams fulfilled a position at a low level in the hierarchy as Supply Chain Co-ordinator. Mike Roberts was the Supply Chain Director, positioned high in the hierarchy. Both practised leadership, but to different levels of effectiveness.

.4.. Truthfulness

Leadership is not exclusive at the top of an organisations hierarchy, as it can occur at all levels and outside an organisations structure, formally and informally. Hence is not true.

.4.4. Usefulness

It is useful to those who aspire to be great leaders and wanting to practice leadership, as it breaks down what was mythically a barrier.

.5. The Leader Controls, Directs, Prods and Manipulates

.5.1. Concepts and Analysis

¡§Leadership is the highest form of power¡K.¡¨ (Mileham & Spacie, 16 8)

Leadership has in part, traditionally believed to be the practice and possesstion of power. Autocratic leadership has been known to use coercive power and control of employees. Democratic leadership has been linked witht the use of reward and expert power, along with the empowerment of employees. Hence the move from hoarding power to sharing of power can be observed, as time has seen the use of democratic leadership rise in poularity. This reflects the shift from the old and traditional paradigm to the new and modern paradigm respectively, paradigm meaning a shared mind-set, thinking and perception to understanding this world (Daft, 008-). Therefore the control of employees is pertinent to the old paradigm and, to date the new paradigm is now in force with empowerment in practice. Waterman links this control with organisational performance by saying,

¡§Today¡¦s¡¦ leaders understand that you have to give up control to get results¡K¡¨ (Crainer, 18 8)

The latest servant leadership style supports Crainer (18) as it encompasses giving up control amongst other things (Daft, 000 54). Even if a situation necessitates the practice of control it should be practised as ¡§control with¡¨ people, as opposed to ¡§control over¡¨ people (Daft, 0005).

¡§Leadership is about a sense of direction.¡¨

These are the words spoken by Adair (18) in explaining leadership (Kennedy, 11 ). Direction in the business context is to lead an organisation to the state they wish to be in. According to Bennis and Nanus (185) a mental image is required of a possible and desirable future state of the organisation, to direct and be creative (Zaccaro & Kilmoski, 001184). A successful vision can result in a differential advantage for an organisation, if clearly articulated, implemented and is shared by others as well as allowing them to add their share of creativity. However an attempt to control and direct the input of others can reduce the vision qualitatively (Bennis et al, 0011 115).

The autocratic leaders is known to direct his followers as well as control them. When this is practised with an ulterior motive, they said to be manipulative. Manipulation of followers¡¦ mind-set skilfully, in a negative or self-serving context is popular amongst cult leaders and rhetoricians to name but a few. They exacerbate the followers¡¦ uncertainties through identifying the followers¡¦ scapegoat as well as enemies on whom they can blame their angst. Becker states they provide the untruth they need as they seek to accept the terrible real world (Bennis et al, 000 18-1).

Overall it is unnecessary to manipulate and control people, as it is also known to destroy their commitment (Bennis et al, 001 115). Also leaders are now advised to pull as opposed to push their employees; inspire instead of ordering; support employees to their initiatives and have experience rather than impose their own and denying them of their experiences or actions (www.moyak.com, accessed 10/10/0).

.5.. Examples and Illustrations

Adolf Hitler is an example, as like the definition he insisted on obedience, allocated tasks and set the objective of taking over and controlling the whole of Germany as well as what is now central eastern European countries.

.5.. Truthfulness

This statement was truth ¡¥once upon a time¡¦ however but has degenerated as the new paradigm demands attention.

.5.4. Usefulness

The useful sense is in that it gives those learning leadership a base on which to start from, however they will have to adapt and conform to the modern leadership styles now present to be effective.

. REFERENCES

Books

ARNOLD, J., COOPER, C.L., ROBERTSON, I.T (18) Work Psychology ¡V Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace, Prentice Hall

BENNIS, W. & NANUS, B (17) Leaders Strategies for Taking Charge. HarperCollins Publishers

BENNIS, W., CUMMINGS, G. T. & SPEITZER, M. G (001) The Future of Leadership. Jossey-Bass

CRAINER, S (18) Key management ideas ¡V thinkers that changed the management world, Financial Times Professional Limited

DAFT R. L (17) Management. 4th Edition. The Dryden Press

DAFT R. L (1) Leadership Theory and Practice. 1st Edition. The Dryden Press

DAFT, R. L (000) Management. 5th Edition. The Dryden Press

DAFT R. L (001) Leadership Theory and Practice. nd Edition. Harcourt College Publishers

KENNEDY, C (11) Guide to the Management Gurus ¡V Shortcut to the Ideas of Leading Management Thinkers. Business Books Limited

KLIMONSKI, R. & ZACCARO, J. S (001) The Nature of Organisational Leadership. Jossey-Bass

KREITNER, R., KINICKI, A., BUELENS, M (00) Organisational Behaviour, nd European Edition, McGraw-Hill

MILEHAM, P. & SPACIE, K (16) Transforming Corporate Leadership. Pearson Professional Limited

MULLINS, L.J (16) Management and Organisational Behaviour. 4th Edition, Pitman Publishing

Journals

KAKABADSE, P. A. & SHEARD, G. A (001) ¡§Key Roles of the Leadership Landscape¡¨. Journal of Management Psychology, Volume 17, Number, pp. 1-144; Available from http//ninetta.emeraldinsight.com/ (Accessed 10/10/0)

KOTTER, J., ¡§What Leaders Really Do¡¨. Harvard Business Review, May 10.

Internet Sources

NETTLE, E., Are Managers Leaders? University of South Australia. Available from http//www.infotrain.magill.unisa.edu.au/epub/People/nette/essay

The Need for Integrated Leadership Development. Complete Leadership Website. Available from http//www.complete-leadership.com/expand/

MASON K. M., Thoughts on Leadership How Important is Decision Making? Available from http//www.moyak.com/researcher/resume/papeers/var6mkm

The Different Types of Objectives/Learning Outcomes. Aberdeen The Robert Gordon University. Available from http//www.rgu.ac.uk/subj/eds/pgcert/specifying/specci6.htm (Accessed 10/10/0)

Online Dictionary. Available from http//www.dictionary.com/search?q=charisma (Accessed 5/10/0)

Leadership Key Issues and Practices. Available from http//www.managmeentfirst.com/articles/articles_print/key_leadership_print.htm (Accessed 10/10/0)

JONI. S. What is Leadership? Available from http//www.loiuseville.edu/bruce/rflct6000/shaw.htm (Accessed 10/10/0)

Leaders Develop Leaders. Journal of Association Management, October 001. Available from http//inst-mgt.org.uk (Accessed 10/10/0)

SWAIN. B., TYRELL. B. The Right Stuff. The Pharmaceutical Executive Journal, August 000. Available from http//inst-mgt.org.uk (Accessed 10/10/0)

BENNIS, W. Tackling a Leadership Crisis. Available from http//www.soul-power.com/magazine/bennis-leadership.asp (Accessed, 5/11/0)

ELLET, B. Leadership is Simple. Training Media Review, January 00. Available from http//inst-mgt.org.uk (Accessed 10/10/0)

SMALLWOOD, N., ULRICH, D. & ZENGER, J. Leadership The New Leadership Development. Training & Development Journal. March 000. Available from http//inst-mgt.org.uk (Accessed 10/10/0)

Verbal Communication

GLOVER, P. Director of e-Solutions. The McLaren Partnership. Communicated on 1/04/0

4. APPENDICES

4.1. Appendix 1 The Management-Leadership Mix

Source Adapted from Daft R, 001

4.. Appendix Hierarchy of the Affective Domain

Source www.rgu.ac.uk/subj/eds/pgcert/specifying/speci1.htm

4.. Appendix Leader and Manager Roles Intertwined

Source Adapted from Kreitner, Kinicki & Buelens, 00451